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Toxicology and Industrial Health, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1991 151 ; the U.S. .100. . the o be .-able J the ation sh to nded icen- 10-' BaP aP Ktent Daily lcen- daily ming TABLE 4 Predicted average daily intake of BaP by the general population of the U.S. Daily intake Percent of total Source (µg/day) daily intake Food (total) 2.10 97% Produce 0.60 28% Dairy products 0.93 44% Beef 0.40 19% Fish 0.17 8% Eggs <0.01 <1% Inhalation 0.05 2% Water 0.01 1% ~: sistent with U.S. EPA assessment methodology (U.S. EPA, 1989). that 100% of BaP ingested is absorbed through the gut. The amount of BaP inhaled by humans was estimated by multiplying the concentration of BaP in background air (ng/m3) by the average adult inhalation rate of 20 m3/day as- suming that 100% of inhaled BaP is absorbed through the lung, which is con- Table 4 gives the predicted average daily intake of BaP by humans from air, water, and food. These data show that the food chain, especially dairy products, beef, and produce, accounts for 97% of human exposure to BaP. Consumption of contaminated eggs and water was not a major source of human exposure. The average, long-term daily intake of BaP by the general population of the U.S. is estimated to be 2.2,ug/day, which agrees well with the intake estimate of 2.2 pg/day reported by Suess (1976) but is about 70 times higher than the geometric mean value of 0.03 ug/day (range equals 0.01 to 1 ng/day) reported by Lioy et al. (1988). The relatively large difference between our exposure estimate and Lioy et al.'s stems from the fact that BaP concentrations in food items reported by Lioy et al. (1988) are generally lower than values predicted by the FFC model. The reason for this discrepancy is not understood. Our predicted concentration of BaP in food items is within the range of measured data (Table 2). One explanation might be that Lioy et al. sampled smaller quan- tities of the food items that we predicted would accumulate larger amounts of BaP (i.e., leafy vegetables and fish). Assuming that the general population takes in about 2.2 /ig of BaP per day and that the cancer potency factor for oral exposure to BaP is 11.5 mg/kg-day'' (U.S. EPA, 1986), the excess lifetime cancer risk associated with human exposure to background levels of BaP is 3.4 x 10-4, or a probability of 345 additional cancer cases per million persons. These results provide evidence that ingestion of BaP-contaminated food items may pose a serious health threat to the U.S. population.

Human Exposure to BaP from Smoking and Indoor Air Pollution Smoking represents another anthropogenic source of background human ex- posure to BaP. Butler and Crossley (1979) estimated that one cigarette delivers about 39 ng of BaP. Thus, average smokers (i.e., individuals who smoke 20 cigarettes a day) are taking in an additional 780 ng of BaP daily, which means that smokers get an additional 16% BaP from smoking. The total increased lifetime cancer risk from BaP associated with smoking 20 cigarettes per day is 4.7 x 10's. Heavy smokers (i.e., individuals who smoke 35 cigarettes a day) are likely to experience a total increased lifetime cancer risk of 5.7 x 10-1 from exposure to BaP. Similarly, Butler and Crossley (1979) reported that concentrations of BaP mea- sured indoors (2.2 nglm3) were comparable to outdoor air concentrations (2.5 ng/m;), demonstrating that indoor activities are not likely to substantially in- crease BaP intakes, since inhalation is not a major pathway of human exposure to BaP. CONCLUSIONS This paper presents a fugacity-based approach for evaluating the environmental partitioning of BaP. Although the modeling efforts used to obtain these results may not have been used extensively in the past, the consistent reproduction of measured environmental data provides evidence that this approach is valid. It should be emphasized, however, that environmental partitioning models are not exact replicas of the environment, since they contain many simplifying assump- tions. For example, the model assumes that all biochemical and chemical trans- forrriation reactions are first order. Furthermore, the models are difficult to validate for the following reasons: (1) reliable measured environmental data are often not available; (2) environmental concentrations vary spatially and tem- porally; and (3) data on the magnitude of emissions into air, water, and soil are rarely known precisely. Preliminary attempts to validate fugacity models, how- ever, show excellent agreement with measured environmental concentrations and estimates of human exposure (Hattemer-Frey et al., 1990; Hattemer-Frey and Travis, 1989; Mackay et al., 1985a; Travis and Hattemer-Frey, 1987). Fur- thermore, this approach allows researchers to quickly and accurately estimate the extent of human exposure relative to other accepted methods (e.g., mea- suring body burdens or conducting market basket studies). Multimedia transport models also represent useful tools for regulating human exposure to organic chemicals, since regulators can establish guidelines that take into account the significance of each exposure pathway. Organic chemicals tend to accumulate in the media in which they are most soluble. BaP, a very tipophilic compound that is virtually insoluble in water, partitions mainly into soil and sediment and accumulates to a large extent in the i - foc to : me exfn con to I Thr U.S hun not esti r valu risk we una, ANI w AR( 01 ta Pr BAC or E; BAC K BAC ca BAC lo 3: BAE ra BAE A n1 N BAS A PC BEA so

Toxicology and Industrial Health, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1991 153 food chain. Multimedia transport models, such as the FFC model, can be used to study the environmental fate of various pollutants released into the environ- ment, their accumulation in the food chain, the pathways and extent of human exposure, and the total environmental input. Results show that ingestion of contaminated food items remains the overwhelming source of human exposure to BaP. The long-term, average daily intake of BaP by the general population of the U.S. is estimated to be 2.2 Itg/day with the food chain accounting for 97% of human exposure to BaP. Inhalation and consumption of contaminated water are not major sources of human exposure. Our intake estimate agrees well with an estimate of 1.61tglday reported by Suess (1976) but is 70 times higher than the value of 0.03 kg/day reported by Lioy et al. (1988). Since the increased lifetime risk associated with human exposure to background levels of BaP is 3.4 x 10-4, we conclude that ingestion of food items contaminated with BaP may pose an unacceptable health risk to the U.S. population. REFERENCES ,ntal >ults n of J. It not .mp- ans- It to t are :em- ~ are low- ions Frey Fu r- nate nea- port :anic the nost 3ter, ) the I ANDELMAN, J.B., and M.J. SUESS, 1970. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the water environment, Bull. WHO, 43:479-508. ARCHER, S.R., T.R. BLACKWOOD, and G.E. WILKINS, 1979. Status Assessment of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, EPA 600/2-79-210L, Industrial Environmen- tal Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. BACCI, E., D. CALAMARI, C. GAGGI and M. VIGHI, 1990. Bioconcentration of organic chemical vapors in plant leaves: Experimental measurements and correlation, Environ. Sci. Technol., 24(6):885-889. BACCI, E., and C. GAGGI, 1987. Chlorinated hydrocarbon vapors and plant foliage: Kinetics and applications, Chemosphere, 16:2515-2522. BACCI, E., and C. GAGGI, 1986. Chlorinated pesticides and plant foilage: Translo- cation experiments, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 37(6):850-857. BACCI, E., and C. GAGGI, 1985. Polychlorinated biphenyls in plant foliage: Trans- location or volatilization from contaminated soils? Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 35(5):673-681. BAES, C.F. III, 1982. Prediction of radionuclide Kd values from soil-plant concentration ratios. Trans. Amer. Nuc. Soc., 41:53-54. BAES, C.F. III, R.D. SHARP, A. SJOREEN and R. SHOR, 1984. A Review and Analysis of Parameters for Assessing Transport of Environmentally Released Radio- nuclides Through Agriculture, ORNL-5786. U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. BASU, D.K., and J. SAXENA, 1978. Analysis of Raw and Drinking Water Samples for Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, EPA CA/7-2999-A AND CA/8-2275-B, Ex- posure Evaluation Branch, Health Effects Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio. BEALL, M.L., Jr., and R.G. NASH, 1971. Organochlorine insecticide residues in soybean plant tops: Root versus vapor sorption, Agron. J., 63:460-4fi4.

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