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iesearc ~ ING PRODUCTS, SERVICES AND CONSUMER ISSUES MAGAZiNE ! $2.50 JULY 1991 Vol. 74 No. 7

C~SN ER Road Rover Taking a dog or cat on a long road trip will require additional planning before you begin. Of the two, dogs are the better trav- elers. Their "pack" instincts make them more willing to fol- low their master. Cats tend to be homebodies, and make less com- pliant travel companions. Your pet should be in good condition before hitting the road. A trip to the veterinarian can confirm this. It also provides an opportunity to make sure the pet's vaccinations are up to date, and to ask questions about spe- cial medical problems you might encounter on the road. Because requirements vary between states, you should take a vacci- nation record with you. (Your pet's medical history might also come in handy should the pet need medical treatment.) Get your pet used to traveling in the car by taking it on pro- gressively longer rides for a cou- ple of weeks before your trip. Unless your pet is excellently trained, you will probably want to put it in a travel kennel (or "crate"). This will keep the pet from bothering you while you drive and from being thrown about if you must make any sud- den stops or sharp turns. Bring along a small toy or bone to entertain your pet. When you stop to stretch your legs you shouldn't let your pet roam free. In an unfamiliar sur- rounding, your dog may run out into traffic. A cat may try to escape as soon as you open the door. For these reasons and as a courtesy to other travelers, keep your pet on a leash. You might want to bring a sup- ply of water from home because pets can get diarrhea from water they aren't used to drink- ing. Also, a supply of ice cubes will help your pet stay cool. Motels and hotels often will not allow animals in rooms, or will have special conditions under which pets must be kept. To save time and frustration, plan in advance where you will stay. Managers will probably be more receptive if you keep your pet well groomed and provide bedding so the pet doesn't sleep on'the room's furniture. You should feed the pet outside the room, or at least not on the room's carpet. And don't leave the pet alone in the room unless it is in its crate. It is best not to take particu- larly nervous or unmanageable pets on the road, and older pets with medical conditions or very young pets-under 10 weeks- are best left at home. For $1.50 the Gaines division of Quaker Oats (at Professional Services, 585 Hawthorne Ct., Galesburg, Ill. 61401) will send you its booklet, "Touring with Towser," which includes listings of hotels around the country that accept dogs. You might also contact your local Humane Society chapter. Cheap Sunglasses To protect your eyes in the summer sun, you should read sunglass labels before buying a pair. Aside from cutting down on glare, sunglasses should protect your eyes from the sun's ultra- violet (UV) radiation. Two types of UV radiation-UVA and WB-can damage your retinas. UVB radiation can also con- tribute to the development of cataracts, the clouding of the eye's lens. To help consumers choose among sunglasses, the Food and Drug Administration and the Sunglass Association of America (SGA) have established a voluntary labeling system. The labels divide glasses into three categories: • Cosmetic lenses-which block at least 70% of UVB radia- tion, 20% of UVA radiation, and less than 60% of visible light- are for light use. • General purpose lenses- which block at least 95% of UVB radiation, 60% of UVA radiation, and between 60% and 92% of visible light-are for most pro- longed outdoor activities. • Special purpose lenses- which block at least 99% of UVB radiation, 60% of UVA radiation, and up to 97% visible light-are for harsh environments, such as high altitudes. The American Optometric Association (AOA) recommends sunglasses that screen out at least 75% of visible light and a high percentage of UV radiation. These qualities can be found for as little as $10, according to the SGA, but consumers should beware of heavily tinted glasses with low UV radiation protec- tion. By allowing your eye's pupils to dilate, these glasses allow extra UV radiation to reach your retina. You should also check lenses for any distortions. Hold the glasses between you and a straight line and turn them. If the line wavers while you do this, the lens is flawed and could tire your eyes when worn for long periods of time. For more information on sun- glasses, contact the SGA at 71 East Ave., Suite S, Norwalk, Conn. 06851, or call (203) 852- 7168. For more information on eye care, contact the AOA at 243 North Lindburgh Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. 63141, or call (314) 991-4100. (Also see, "Eye Car.3 for the Summer," CR, June 1987. -Guy Murdoch 2 Consumers' Research

COVER: Photo by John Merline DEPARTMENTS Consumer Tips 2 Road Rover Cheap Sunglasses Consumer Letters 4 Publisher's Page 5 First The Facts Dateline Washington 6 Credit Union Concerns? Consumers' Observation Post 7 Food for Thought 8 Hydroponic Produce The Green Thumb 37 Doc and Katy Abraham Calling All Consumers 38 Drug Ads TMI and Cancer Current Motion Pictures 39 Consumer Alert 40 Scott Pattison Cumulative Index 42 Recorded Music in Review 43 Walter F Grueninger MAGAZINE CONTENTS ISSN 0095-2222 VOLUME 74 No. 7 JULY 1991 PASSIVE SMOKING: HOW GREAT A HAZARD? 10 The risk to nonsmokers has been overblown WHAT TO KNOW WHEN SHOPPING FOR TIRES 16 Size, type, and warranty are all important THE GREAT AMERICAN DAIRY PRODUCT HEIST 20 Consumers pay higher milk prices than they should DEATH RATES IN POPULAR CARS 23 Car size is important HOW USEFUL ARE FOOD STANDARDS? 26 The pros and cons of standards of identity IRAs FOR FIRST- TIME HOMEBUYERS 30 Congress might expand benefits of IRAs SCIENCE BEHIND RECENT REGULATIONS QUESTIONED 35 Coverage of a CR symposium PRODUCT RECALLS AND NOTICES 36 Barbeques, fire extinguishers, and more July 1991 3

CO11S11MOF LETTERS CENTS ON CAFE I have just read your article "Tougher CAFE Standards Mean More Car Deaths" (April 1991) and I have to put in my two cents worth. How about a comparison be- tween car safety and driver ability to drive safety? The peo- ple of this country want more power under the hood, bigger engines with a nice shiny finish on the outside. Larger engines are safer in weight, but what about the driver's ability to handle the car safely? Our gov- ernment could save itself-and us-a lot of grief by periodically checking drivers' ability to han- dle cars of any size safely. Jerry E. Scott Jr. Alexander, Arkansas The editor's respond: Driver behavior is an important risk factor, no matter how big the car is. This fact is recognized by the insurance industry, which cal- culates insurance rates based on age and sex. Death statistics back this notion up as well; cars driven by young males tend to have higher fatality rates than those driven by older or female drivers. Aside from this, howev- er, making all car's smaller puts everyone at a greater risk, regardless of their driving habits. AIR BAG Kuoos I wish to thank you for your article on air bags ("The Trouble with Air Bags," January 1991). It's high time someone did an in-depth report on air bags. I personally feel even stronger on the issue. Why should I (as a driver who always buckles up) be forced to pay $800 more for a car due to fools who do not buckle up? I think that all the air bag (or passive restraint) does is raise the cost of a car, thereby giving the gov- ernment a nice little tax in- crease. Jeff Savage Watsonville, California Too MANY ROADS? Regarding Gabriel Roth's article "How to Improve Amer- ica's Highways" (February 1991), I think we have far more streets, roads, and highways than we actually need. If we were to take some of the worst roads and city streets and elimi- nate them, future funds could be much more wisely spent for other endeavors. Don Baright Lebanon, Missouri The editor's respond: Those sitting in traffic jams each day on their way to and from work might tend to disagree. MOVING? Mail to: Consumers' Research Inc. P.O. Box 642 Holmes, PA 19043 address cNy stale zip r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I i Attach label hers I I - ------------------ I CONSUMERS' RESEARCH INC. TRUSTEES and OFFICERS: President, M. Stanton Evans; Vice Presidents: James Roberts, Ruth I. Matthews, Terrence M. Scanlon; Secretary, Ronald Pearson; Treasurer, Allan Ryskind. CONSUMERS' RESEARCH INC. is an independent, non-profit organization, estab- lished in 1927 for the purpose of providing the public with scientific, technical and edu- cational information Consumers' Research magazine presents articles on a wide range of topics of consumer interest Consumers' Research is produced and published on the basis of data believed to be accurate. Consumers' Research is not supported by manufacturers, dealers or any govem- ment agencies. Consumers' Research does not accept product advertising and does not permit any person or firm to make commercial use of its findings. The pub lishers and editors do not assume re- sponsibility for any injuries or damages resulting from the use of the products or services described in the magazine. SUBSCRIPTION INQUIRIES, mail or- ders, changes of address, undeliverable copies, etc., to be addressed to Subscrip- tion Department, Consumers' Research, P.O Box 642. Holmes, PA 19043- Please allow 60 days for change of address. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: $24 per year, 12 issues; $42, two years; and $58, three years. Canada and foreign: $28 (U.S.I. one year; $50, two years: and $70, three years. BACK ISSUES: $3, Postage and han- dling included. Specify exact date and send request to: Back Issues, Consumers' Re- search, P.O. Box 642, Holmes, PA 19043. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR should be addressed to Consumers' Research Inc., 800 Maryland Ave., NE, Washington, D.C. 20002. CR is not in a position to provide special answers by letter to questions that relate to an individual or personal problem. COPYRIGHT J 1991 by Consumers' Re- search Inc., 800 Maryland Ave., NE, Wash- ington, fZC. 20002. All rights reserved Mat- erial in Consumers' Researcbh is protected by copyright and all rights to its use are re- served by Consumers~ Research Inc. No part of the content of the magazine may be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, except upon first obtaining permission in writing from Con- sumers' Research Inc. Manuscripts submit- ted must be accompanied by a stamped, self-addressed envelope. However, Con- ; sumers' Research cannot be responsible for unsolicited materiat = 4 Consumers' Research

MAGAZINE ANALYZING PRUOUCTS. SERVICES AND CONSUMER ISSUES PUBLISHER M. Stanton Evans EDITOR John W. Merline EXECUTIVE EDITOR Peter L. Spencer FOOD EDITOR Beatrice Trum Hunter DESIGN AND GRAPHICS C. Ashley Jackson CONTRIBUTING EDITORS George and Katy Abraham Jeff Cohen Richard Coorsh Walter F Grueninger Malcolm A. Kline Ruth I. Matthews Scott Pattison Terrence M. Scanlon Jeff Schein Jeffrey Seisler Christopher Warden Walter W. Watt EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Guy Murdoch ASSISTANT PUBLISHER Whitney L. Ball CIRCULATION MANAGER Ingrid B. Hirthe BUSINESS MANAGER Mary Jo Buckland ASSISTANT TO THE PUBLISHER Irma V. White COMPOSITION Wordscape Inc. Wash ngton, D.C. PRINTER Mack Printing Co. Easton, Pennsylvania SUBSCRIPTION DEPARTMENT P O. Box 642 Holmes. Pennsylvania 19043 CONSUMERS' RESEARCH magaz ne (ISSN 0095-2222) is published monthly for $24 per year by Consumers' Research Inc.. 800 Mary- land Ave., NE, Washington, DC 20002. (202) 546-1713. Second-class postage paid at Wash- ngton, DC. and at additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: send address changes to CON- SUMERS RESEARCH, P.O. Box 642. Holmes, PA 19043. PUBLISHER'S PAGE First The Facts "Sentence first-verdict afterwards," was Lewis Carroll's famous parody of minds locked on to pre- conceived conclusions. That formula seems increasingly relevant these days to rules and regulations allegedly meant to handle consumer problems. As pointed out at a recent conference on "Science and Regulation," sponsored by Consumers' Research, numerous programs supposedly protecting us from health and safety.hazards have been adopted with relatively little attention to scientific data. Some details about this practice are provided in the articles appearing at pages 10 and 35. In case after case, it seems, we are getting sentence first, analysis of the evi- dence later (if at all). This is not a helpful method of pro- ceeding in any walk of life, and it is especially dubious in technical matters pertaining to the health and well-being of the public. Obviously, if we don't base our health, environmental and other policies on scientific fact, the goals of science are disserved. Equally to the point, the goals of consumers are disserved, since we have no assurance that the policies enacted (and costs incurred) involve real problems, slight major problems while focusing on minor ones, or effec- tively address the question of underlying causes. Among the most important protections consumers can enjoy is accurate information-about products, services, and consumer issues. If official rules and regulations aren't based on accurate data, then consumer interests are likely to be harmed instead of helped. M anton Evans Publisher July 1991 5

P,TF~L1N~,aQ _ as mg on Credit Union Concerns? First it was the savings and loans. Then, reports began to surface about the fund that insures banks. Now, a draft report from the General Accounting Office (GAO) recommends a major overhaul of the way the government regulates credit unions. According to the draft report, federal regulators are some- what slow on the uptake when credit unions develop financial difficulties. Furthermore, notes the draft report, growth and expansion have led to a lot of credit union managers being unfamiliar with their members. The draft report recommends that Congress consider setting up federal guidelines on credit union membership, as well as a "trip wire" system that would require regulators to step in when a credit union's financial health deteriorates, and restric- tions on the kinds of loans cred- it unions are able to make. Credit unions, like banks, make loans and accept deposits, but they are cooperative, non- profit institutions that do business only with members. Currently, 55 million people belong to U.S. credit unions, and another 155 million are eli- gible to join. Another recent GAO report indicates that anti-com- petitive practices at key air- ports result in higher air fares for the passengers who use them. According to the report, limitations at four "slot restricted" airports-Chicago's O'Hare, Washington (D.C.) National, and La Guardia and Kennedy airports in New York-where the government limits the number of takeoffs and landings, resulted in air fares that were, on average, 3% higher than at airports without such restrictions. At airports where two or more anti-compet- itive conditions exist, fares are 5% to 9% higher than the na- tional average, according to the report. The Food and Drug Ad- ministration (FDA), fresh from its foray against the allegedly misleading use of the words "fresh" and "no cholesterol" on food labels, has more recently targeted drug promotions to physicians. In late May, Bristol-Myers Squibb agreed to a demand by the FDA to stop issuing a pro- motional publication that sug- gested unapproved uses for some of the company's cancer drugs in the treatment of can- cer. The company also agreed to get advance approval from the FDA for all promotional mate- rials associated with certain cancer drugs for the next two years. According to Bristol-Myers Squibb, the publication con- tained scientific articles written by leading oncologists and pro- vided physicians with "the lat- est developments in cancer treatment." The Consumer Prod- uct Safety Commission (CPSC) is recommending that con- sumers use ground-fault circuit interrupters, or GFCIs, with household appliances in order to prevent accidental electrocu- tion. GFCIs, in essence, are sensi- tive circuit breakers that break a circuit immediately upon sens- ing a loss of current. If, for example, you touch an appli- ance that is "leaking" electrici- ty while at the same time you touch a grounded piece of metal, the GFCI will cut the cir- cuit-not in time to prevent a shock, but in plenty of time to prevent electrocution. Some 178 people were elec- trocuted in their homes last year for lack of GFCIs, accord- ing to the CPSC. Although the National Electrical Code has, since 1973, required GFCIs to be installed in new homes, many thousands of older houses have none. However, portable GFCIs that plug into household outlets are available from $7 to $12 or higher. (See "Electrical Safety Begins at the Outlet," CR, August 1990.) /, The government plans to step up efforts to encourage seat belt use. The National Highway Traffic Safety Admin- istration (NHTSA) has an- nounced a two-year campaign that features increased enforce- ment of seat belt and child restraint laws. Part of NHTSA's effort consists of enforcement and publicity blitzes scheduled for the July 4th and Labor Day holidays. According to NHTSA, slightly fewer than 50% of all drivers buckle up, even though 90% of the population lives in jurisdic- tions that require the use of restraints. -Richard Coorsh 6 Consumers' Research

The consumers' Observation Post SOME TRAVEL AGENCIES HAVE DEVELOPED computer programs that can beat airlines at their own game. Because airlines constantly change fares and seat availability, travel agents and travel consumers have a tough time searching the airline reservation systems for the best fares. Fare-checking computer programs, however, can search the systems continuous- ly-independent of the agent-for changing fares, cancellations, and new openings in win- dow and aisle seats, thus allowing agents to "catch" lower-priced and more-desirable book- ings. Currently, only large-volume agencies operate such systems. It's no surprise that a number of the airline reservation systems recently announced they'd begin charging agencies extra for entries to the systems beyond a certain quota so as to limit how much free access such computer programs can have. THE FUTURE FOR CAR BUYERS IS IN AUTOMALLS. According to a study by the auto-mar- ket watcher J.D. Power Inc., automalls--defined as any preplanned multi-dealership shop- ping center-will account for roughly 20% of car sales within the next 15 years, up from 5% today. And the number of such malls will more than double, from 122-largely in California and some Western states-to more than 350 nationwide. A concurrent increase in so-called dealer clusters (where dealers are concentrated along a certain road) is also predicted. Meanwhile, 60% of current independent, stand-alone dealerships will fail or be consumed by larger multi-manufacturer operations, the report notes. Driven by consumer demand for one-stop shopping as well as other economic pressures, the development of automalls portends a revolution in auto retailing, much like the rise of shops such as Circuit City did for the sale of electronics products, J.D. Power analysts say. SOON TO-BE INTRODUCED DIGITAL COMPACT CASSETTES (DCC) may catch on where their cousin, Digital Audio Tape (DAT), has so far failed. Unlike DATs, DCC players will be able to play conventional cassette tapes. Manufacutured by compact disc inventor Philips, DCC reportedly has a number of record companies lined up to produce prerecorded tapes; something DAT has yet to acheive, in part because of recording industry complaints about DAT's ability to duplicate tapes. As with DAT, DCC will be coded to prevent the making of duplicate tapes. And, in what promises to be an interesting marketing battle, DAT maker Sony has unveiled a recordable, erasable compact disc system, called Mini Disks, which will be half the size of today's compact discs. These and the DCC are due out in the fall of 1992. MORE ELDERLY HOMEOWNERS WILL BE ABLE TO DRAW INCOME OFF THEIR HOMES through so-called reverse mortgages. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) announced it is expanding a pilot program that allows qualified "house rich but cash poor" homeowners of at least 62 years of age to convert equity in their homes into cash or monthly incomes. Principle and interest on the loan come due when the homeowner moves or dies; heirs can repay the loan to keep the house, or sell it to pay off the loan. The FHA will cover losses if the sale price doesri t cover the loan amount and will also cover costs of lifetime payments to homeowners who outlive the value of their homes. (See "Home Equity Conversions," CR, October 1988.) Continued on page 41. July 1991 7

f0 Orq nought Beatrice Trum Hunter Hydroponic Produce Hydroponically-grown veg- etables such as tomatoes, "bur- pless" cucumbers, and bibb let- tuce have become commonplace offerings in the produce sec- tions of many supermarkets. Many consumers favor these vegetables, which, being grown in water, are clean and have no soil clinging to them. Such pro- duce has good flavor, having been allowed to ripen fully be- fore it is picked. Because the roots of bibb lettuce are left in- tact on the plant within the plastic wrapper, the lettuce ac- tually continues to grow and does not wilt readily. The con- trolled environment of hydro- ponics also eliminates the need for pesticides. Growing plants in water is not new. The ancient world's wondrous hanging gardens of Babylon are thought to have been grown hydroponically. The floating gardens of Xochimilco were tended prior to the Spanish invasion of Mexico. In 1699, successful hydroponic production of spearmint was re- ported in Europe. Modern hydroponics began in the 1860s. Plants were found to thrive, provided they received all the needed macro- and micro-nutrients from inorganic salts in solutions. During World War II, interest in hydroponics grew. The technique was viewed as a practical way to provide fresh vegetables for troops sta- tioned on isolated Pacific is- lands. After the war, hydropon- ics were utilized in many areas, including Europe, Japan, the Middle East, and the United States. Hydroponics are especially useful in desert areas, where warm weather and long sun- light may be favorable factors for plant growth, but where soil conditions are unfavorable. Water economy is an attractive feature for arid areas because, in hydroponic systems, precious water can be recirculated. In urban areas, with dense population, available farmland is scarce and expensive. Yet shoppers may seek, and willing- ly pay, premium prices for year- round availability of ripe, at- tractive, and tasty vegetables. Hydroponics could help meet these demands. Underutilized areas such as former parking lots, landfills, and roofs of city buildings have been suggested for hydroponics. A large volume of hydroponic food can be grown rapidly in a small area. Reportedly, four heads of hydroponic lettuce can be raised in the same amount of space required to grow one head of field lettuce. Due to the con- trolled environment, the hydro- ponically-grown lettuce will grow more rapidly. The tech- nique has been suggested to raise a weekly crop of grass as cattle feed. Also, with growing concerns about energy and transportation costs, hydropon- ics is regarded as a potentially beneficial factor in an energy efficiency program. Hydroponic techniques vary. In water culture, the roots of the plants are held in a large waterproof tank. The plants are supported by mesh or string. In gravel cultures-a more costly system to install and main- tain-a water-proof bench is filled with inert pea-sized grav- el to support the roots. A solu- tion containing all the essential nutrients required by the plant is pumped into the gravel from a holding tank. When the bench is full of the solution, the pump is turned off and the solution drains back to the holding tank. The solution is replenished pe- riodically. A nutrient film tech- nique is another system, which does not require as large a hold- ing tank as that used in gravel culture. The plants grow in nar- row, shallow troughs, and the roots of the plants are constant- ly bathed in a flowing solution of nutrients. Vegetables such as celery, peppers, and Chinese cabbage, as well as flowering plants such as geranium, have been grown successfully in gravel culture. Tomatoes and cucumbers, as well as flowering plants such as snapdragons and asters, have been grown in the nutrient film. Recently, hydroponics have been introduced at the retail food level. An on-site hydropon- ic "garden" in a Houston, Texas, supermarket provides customers with fresh lettuce and other vegetables. The lamps that are used emit three different wave- lengths of light (red, far red, and blue) in a proper ratio to stimulate photosynthesis. The lamps provide a more constant light source than does sunlight. Nutrients are proportionately controlled in the solution, and are monitored to ensure that they are in correct ratios. The controlled growing conditions make it possible to predict "har- vest" times, so that the store manager can plan efficient pro- duce stocking. The manager hopes to produce several differ- ent types of lettuce, herbs, spinach, and tomatoes. 8 Consumers' Research

Similar hydroponic units have been suggested for restau- rant use. Patrons could be of- fered fresh grown-on-premises vegetables at the salad bar. Another future application for hydroponics might benefit astronauts and submariners. These groups, after having eaten freeze-dried or other pre- served foods for days or weeks, usually crave fresh produce. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is attempting to develop an hy- droponic "salad machine" that will make fresh vegetables available to the crews of Space d Q. I know that darker greens such as romaine lettuce usually have higher levels of nutrients than lighter greens such as Boston lettuce. I tried to find nutrient differences between green and white asparagus, but could not find any figures for white asparagus in the U.S. Department of Agriculture Composition of Foods. Are any figures available? A. Your question intrigued me. None of my references helped. A research horticulturist sup- plied information. Raw white asparagus is reported to be slightly lower in protein, but higher in soluble solids than green asparagus. White aspara- gus is similar, or higher, in fiber. However, the white spears con- tain only half as much ascorbic acid, about 1/12 as much total carotenoids, and more nitrates than do green spears. Doubt- less, you know that ascorbic acid and carotenoids are beneficial Station Freedom and other long-duration missions. The aim is to produce three salads weekly for each of a crew of four. With limited space, any such machine must be compact, and operate on less than a kilowatt of power. It must produce a minimal amount of waste heat, and provide light for the plants. A nutrient-delivery system must provide water and neces- sary nutrients to the growing plants while keeping fluids in place in a zero-gravity environ- ment. Proper humidity may be maintained by recycling the components, while the nitrates are not. The white spears are nearly devoid of any chlorophyll. If they are exposed to strong light, they will green slightly. Q. I heard that some foods, i f handled, can cause contact der- matitis. Which foods are they? A. Some vegetables may cause contact dermatitis. Commonly, the handlers of parsnips, garlic, onions, tomatoes, carrots, and ginger may develop contact der- matitis. As everyone knows, poison ivy is a common sensitizer that produces contact dermatitis. Cross sensitization can occur with other members of the poi- son ivy family, including poison oak and poison sumac, as well as the fruit of ginkgo trees. A few foods are also in this fami- ly; the oil in cashew nutshells and the peel and leaves of mango fruit may be sensitizing agents. The sap of the mango tree contains a substance simi- lar to that of poison ivy. The sap, present on the skin of the mango, can cause itching, red- ness, and blisters on the skin. condensed water vapor. The salad machine would also furnish oxygen-enriched air to the cabin environment, after particulates and excess water vapor are removed. Some plants may be smaller than varieties commonly found on earth. Tomato plants, for ex- ample, might be less than a foot high. Some vegetables may grow upside down or sideways from an earth perspective! NASA hopes to have a salad machine fully operational in time for Space Station Free- dom's scheduled completion later in this decade. Unfortunately, this sap cannot be washed off the skin readily and continues to adhere to it. Individuals who may be sensi- tive to this sap need to wear rubber gloves before attempting to peel the mango. Q. Is there any way to test for the freshness of an egg, with the shell intact? A. Place the egg in a bowl of cold water. If it is fresh, the egg will sink; if not fresh, it will float. If shell eggs are stored in their cartons, and kept refriger- ated, they can be kept for sever- al weeks. The longer they are stored, however, the less flavor and texture they will have. Beatrice Trum Hunter is the author of a num- ber of books concerning food topics of impor- tance to consumers. The most recent ones in- clude The Great Nutrition Robbery, The Mirage of Safety, and The Sugar Trap and How to Avoid It. Hunter is a frequent guest lecturer at universities and at meetings of health profes- sionals and from time to time she appears on national commercial and public television pro- grams. You may send your questions about food to Beatrice Trum Hunter, c/o Consumers' Research Inc., 800 Maryland Ave., NE, Washington, DC 20002. For a personal reply enclose a self-addressed, stamped envelope. July 1991 9

Special Report: Passive Smoking: How Great A Hazard? By Gary L. Huber, MD, Robert E. Brockie, MD, and Vijay K. Mahajan, MD Reports from medical journals, the popular media, and federal regulatory agencies about the adverse health effects of passive smoking have convinced many jurisdictions to ban smok- ing in public places. What is often missing from such discussions is the scientific basis for the health-related claims. The following article examines the scientific data concerning the ascertainable risk from inhalation of environ- mental tobacco smoke. One of its authors, Dr. Gary Huber, spoke at a recent CR symposium on "Science and Regulation" (see article on page 35).-Ed. 1~1 bout 50 million or so Americans are active smokers, consuming well over 500 billion tobacco cigarettes each year. The "secondhand" smoke-usually called "environ- mental tobacco smoke," or more simply "ETS"-that is generated is released into their surroundings, where it potentially is inhaled passively and retained by nonsmokers. Or is it? Literally thousands of ETS-related state- ments now have appeared in the lay press or in the scientific literature. Many of these have been published, and accepted as fact, without adequate critical questioning. Based on the belief that these publications are accurate, numerous public policies, regulations, and laws have been implemented to segregate or restrict active smokers, on the assertion that ETS is a health hazard to those who do not smoke. What quantity of smoke really is released into the environment of the nonsmoker? What is the chemical and physical quality, or nature, of ETS remnants in our environment? Is there a health risk to the nonsmoker? In concentra- Drs. Huber, Brockie, and Mahajan are with, respect- ively, the University of Texas Health Science Center, the Presbyterian Hospital of Dallas, and St. Vincent's Hospital-Medical College of Ohio. tions as low as one part in a billion or even in a trillion parts of clean air, some of the highly- diluted constituents in ETS are irritating to the membranes of the eyes and nose of the non- smoker. Cigarette smoking is offensive to many nonsmokers and some of these highly-diluted constituents can trigger adverse emotional responses, but do these levels of exposure really represent a legitimate health hazard? "Cigarette smoking is offensive to many nonsmokers and some of these highly-diluted con- stituents can trigger adverse emotional responses, but do these levels of exposure really represent a legitimate health hazard?" L Clear answers to these questions are difficult to find. The generation, interpretation, and use of scientific and medical information about ETS has been influenced, and probably distort- ed, by a "social movement" to shift the empha- sis on the adverse health effects of smoking in the active smoker to an implied health risk for the nonsmoker. The focus of this movement, initiated by Sir George Godber of the World Health Organization 15 years ago, was and is to emphasize that active cigarette smokers injure those around them, including their families and, especially, any infants that might be exposed involuntarily to ETS. By fostering the perception that secondhand smoke is unhealthy for nonsmokers, active smoking has become an undesirable and an antisocial behavior. The cigarette smoker has become ever more segregated and isolated. This ETS social movement has been successful in Iv C~~. 10 Consumers' Research

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reducing tobacco cigarette consumption, per- haps more than other measures, including mandatory health warnings, advertising bans on radio and television, and innumerable other efforts instituted by public health and medical professional organizations. But, has the ETS social movement been based on scientific truth and on reproducible data and sound scientific principles? At times, not surprisingly, the ETS social movement and scientific objectivity have been in conflict. To start with, much of the research on ETS has been shoddy and poorly conceived. Editorial boards of scientific journals have selectively accepted or excluded contributions not always on the basis of inherent scientific merit but, in part, because of these social pres- sures and that, in turn, has affected and biased the data that are available for further analyses by professional organizations and governmen- tal agencies. In addition, "negative" studies, even if valid, usually are not published, espe- cially if they involve tobacco smoke, and thus they do not become part of the whole body of literature ultimately available for analysis. Negative results on ETS and health can be found in the scientific literature, but only with great difficulty in that they are mentioned in passing as a secondary variable in a "positive" study reporting some other finding unrelated to ETS. To evaluate critically any potential adverse Figure 1: Particulate Phase and Gas Phase of Tobacco Smoke* health effects of ETS, it must first be appreciat- ed that not all tobacco smoke is the same, and thus the risk for exposure to the different kinds of tobacco smoke must be considered indepen- dently.l What Is ETS? The three most important forms of tobacco smoke are depicted in Figure 1. Mainstream smoke is the tobacco smoke that is drawn through the butt end of a cigarette during active smoking; this is the tobacco smoke that the active smoker inhales into his or her lungs. The distribution of mainstream smoke is sum- marized in Table 1 (page 12). Sidestream smoke is the tobacco smoke that is released in the sur- rounding environment of the burning cigarette from its smoldering tip between active puffs. Many publications have treated sidestream smoke and ETS as if they were one and the same, but sidestream smoke and ETS are clear- ly not the same thing. Sidestream smoke and ETS have different physical properties and they 1A burning cigarette has been described as "a miniature chemical factory," producing numerous new components from its raw materials. When a cigarette is smoked, the burning cone has a temperature of about 860 to 900°C during active puffing, and smolders at 500 to 600°C between puffs. When tobacco burns at these temperatures, the products of pyrolyzation are all vapors. As the vapors cool in passage away from the burning cone, they condense into minute liquid droplets, initially about two ten-millionths of a meter In size. Generally, then, all forms of smoke are microaerosols of very small liquid droplets of particulate matter suspended in their surrounding vapors or gases. Thus, all smoke has a "particulate phase" and a "gas phase." 0 000000000000000000000 000000000000000000000 00000000000000000 C o C o 0oooooaooooo000000000 000000000000000000000 000000000000000000000 000000000000000000000 0 0 000 0 0 0 0000 0000 G 00 000000 00 0000000 000 000000000 00 0 0 0 0 0 Mainstream Smoke C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 Sidestream Smoke Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) * Schematic representation of the particulate phase and the gas phase of tobacco smoke. Environmental tobacco smoke is not smoke In the conventional sense, but rather a very limited number of highly-diluted remnants or residual constituents of mainstream smoke and sidestream smoke. July 1991 11

.Tab1e 1: Distribution of Mainstream Smoke Total Mainstream Smoke 500* Wet Totai Particulate Matter 22 Nicotine 1.3 Water 3.7 "Tar" , 17 Aerosol Gas Phase Water 478 Air Components 50 Carbon Monoxide 350 Carbon Dioxide 50 Other Components 8 'Alf data expressed In milligrams for a 501 mg deliver cigarette, as deter- mined by Federal Trade Commission criteria. SOURCE: Adapted from Huber, 1989. have different chemical properties. Environ- mental tobacco smoke is usually defined as a combination of highly diluted sidestream smoke plus a smaller amount of that residual main- stream smoke that is exhaled and not retained by the active smoker. What really is ETS? In comparison to mainstream smoke and side- stream smoke, ETS is so highly diluted that it is not even appropriate to call it smoke, in the conventional sense. Indeed, the term "environ- mental tobacco smoke" is a misnomer. Why is ETS a misnomer? Several reports on smoking and health from the Surgeon General's Office, a National Research Council review of ETS in 1986, the more recent Environmental Protection Agency's risk assess- ment of ETS, and several review articles all have provided a long list of chemical con- stituents derived from analyses of mainstream smoke and sidestream smoke, with the implica- tion that because they are demonstrable in mainstream smoke and sidestream smoke these same constituents must, by inference, also be present in ETS. No one really knows if they are present or not. In fact, most are not so present or, if they are, they are present only in very dilute concentrations that are well below the level of detection by conventional technologies available today. Only 14 of the 50 biologically active "proba- ble constituents" of ETS listed by the Surgeon General, for instance, actually have been mea- sured or demonstrated at any level in ETS. The others are there essentially by inference, not by actual detection or measurement. Thus, there are 36 constituents in these lists that are in- ferred to be present in ETS, but their presence has not been confirmed by actual detection or measurement. In this sense, then, ETS is really not smoke in the conventional sense of its defi- nition, but rather consists of only a limited number of "remnants" or residual constituents present in highly dilute concentrations. Because the levels of ETS cannot be quanti- fied accurately as such in the environment, some investigators have attempted to measure one or more constituent parts of ETS as a "sub- stitute marker" for ETS as a whole. The most frequently employed such "marker" has been nicotine or its first metabolically stable break- down product, cotinine. Nicotine was consid- ered an "ideal marker" because it is more or less unique to tobacco, although small amounts can be found in some tomatoes and in other food sources. In the mainstream tobacco smoke that is inhaled by the active smoker, nicotine starts out almost exclusively in the tiny liquid droplets of the particulate phase of the smoke. Because the smoke particles of ETS become so quickly and so highly diluted, however, nicotine very rapidly vaporizes from the liquid suspend- ed particulates and enters the surrounding gas. In technical terms, the process by which nico- tine leaves the suspended aerosol particle to enter the surrounding gas phase is called "denudation." As a vapor or gas, nicotine reacts with or adsorbs onto almost everything in the environ- ment with which it comes into contact. Thus, nicotine is not a representative or even a good surrogate marker for the particulate phase, or even the gas-vapor phase, of ETS. In fact, there are no reliable or established markers for ETS. The remnant or residual constituents of ETS each have their own chemical and physical behavior characteristics in the environment and none is present in a concentration in our environment that reaches an established threshold for toxicity.2 Measuring Health Risks Because the level of exposure to ETS or the dose of ETS retained cannot be quantified under every-day, real-life conditions, the health effects following exposure to residual con- 2A threshold limit value (usually expressed as milligrams of a substance per cubic meter of air or as parts of a substance present per million parts of res- pirable clean air) is the recommended concentration of a substance as the maximal level that should not be exceeded to prevent occupational disease through exposure in the workplace. Threshold limit values have not been established for our general, every-day environment outside of industrial expo- sure. Threshold limit values are determined by toxicologists, epidemiologists, and hygienists through their interpretation of literature, and usually are sanc- tioned by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. No constituent of ETS has been measured in our every-day environment at levels that exceed the threshold limit values permitted in the workplace. 12 Consumers' Research

stituents of ETS have been impossible to evalu- ate directly. In broad terms, two different approaches have been employed in an attempt to assess indirectly the health risks for expo- sure of the nonsmoker to the environmental remnants of ETS. The first of these involves a theoretical concept that is called "linear risk extrapolation." Linear risk extrapolation has been employed extensively in attempts to deter- mine the risk for lung cancer in nonsmokers exposed to ETS.3 This concept of linear risk assumes that if there is a definable health risk for the active smoker, then there also must be a projected lower health risk for the nonsmoker exposed to ETS. This is represented schematically in Figure 2. The risk has been presumed to be lin- ear from the active smoker to the nonsmoker exposed to ETS, based proportionately on the relative exposure levels and retained doses of smoke; it thus requires some measurement of tobacco smoke exposure for both groups. This is fairly easy to achieve in the active smoker, in part because mainstream smoke has been so well-characterized and it is delivered directly from the butt-end of the cigarette into the smoker. Such is obviously not the case, howev- er for the nonsmoker exposed to ETS. Most projections of linear risk for ETS-expo- sure have been based on the use of nicotine as a representative marker of exposure. A few pro- jections have been based on carbon monoxide levels or amounts of respirable suspended par- ticulates in the environment, but these approaches are fraught with even greater error. Since nicotine initially is in the particulate phase of the mainstream smoke inhaled by the active smoker and it is present primarily as a highly diluted gas-phase remnant or residual vapor-phase con- stituent in the nonsmoker's environment, the concept of a linear health risk from the active smoker to the nonsmok- er is based on rather shaky s.;ientific-reasoning. That is to say, it is not valid to estimate a health risk for exposure to the particulate phase in the active smoker and then compare it with the health risk for exposures to the gas phase in the ETS- exposed nonsmoker. Simply stated, "like" is not being com- Figure 2: Linear Risk Extrapolation* 5.0 ~ 03.0 No Threshold One Molecule Theory pared to "like." Mainstream smoke and the residual constituents of ETS represent very dif- ferent exposure conditions. Whether present in mainstream smoke or in ETS, particulate phase and gas phase constituents have very different biological properties, as well as different physi- cal and chemical characteristics, and any asso- ciated health risks are also very different. The concept of linear risk extrapolation for ETS is based on a theory that when applied to ETS incorporates unsound assumptions that are not valid. There is no way, as yet, to evaluate or compare the levels of exposure in active smok- ers and nonsmokers exposed to ETS. The second approach used to evaluate health risks for nonsmokers exposed to ETS has employed epidemiologic studies. Epidemiology is a branch of medical science that studies the distribution of disease in human populations and the factors determining that distribution, chiefly by the use of statistics. The chief func- 3The concept is based on a theoretical extrapolation of the risk for lung cancer in the active smoker to the risk for lung cancer in the passive smoker on the basis of a "representative marker" for both smoke exposures. This "linear risk extrapolation" from one to the other is a model that is based on mathematical theory and on several assumptions. The theory assumes that the risk applies to all exposure levels, even if they are very low. Some advocates of the model even assume a "one molecule, one hit" mechanism, where exposures so low that they cannot be detected or measured can still cause disease if only a sin- gle molecule reaches a vulnerable body tissue. The linear risk theory also assumes that the risk for accumulative exposure remains constant and, thus, that the exposed individual has no capacity to adapt or develop tolerance mechanisms for the exposure. Since active smokers readily and rapidly devel- op tolerance through a variety of defense mechanisms, it seems illogical to assume those repeatedly exposed to ETS would not do the same. The linear risk model assumes that the risk for exposure to ETS is independent of any confounding factors. Finally, for this theory to be valid, it must be assumed that the risk Is linear for duration of exposure and that it is linear for concen- tration of exposure. None of these assumptions holds true on scientific testing for comparative projections of mainstream smoke to ETS. 1.0 0.0 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10 Relative Environmental Exposure Level 'The concept of linear risk extrapolation. In this theory, the health response (expressed as a rela- tive risk) is directly or linearly related to the relative environmental exposure level. This theory sug- gests that there Is no "safe" threshold below which there is no response, and that exposure to as little as one molecule of the environmental substance can cause an adverse response. July 1991 13

I "Of the 30 ETS-lung cancer stud- ies, 6 reported a statistically significant association... and 24 of those studies reported no statistically significant effect." tion of epidemiology is the identification of pop- ulations at high risk for a given disease, so that the cause may be identified and preventative measures implemented. Epidemiologic studies are most effective when they can assess a well-defined risk. Because ETS-exposure levels cannot be mea- sured or in any other way quantified directly, even by representative markers, epidemiolo- gists have had to use indirect estimates, or sur- rogates, of ETS exposure. For nonsmoking adults, the number of active smokers that are present in the household has been used as a surrogate for ETS exposure. Usually the active smoking household member has been the non- smoker's spouse. With a few limited exceptions, disease rates in nonsmokers exposed to a spouse who smokes have been the basis for all epidemiologic assessments. Almost all of these studies have evaluated nonsmoking females married to a husband who smokes. For children, the surrogate for ETS exposure has been the number of parents in the household who smoke. Estimates of ETS expo- sure based on spousal or parental surrogates have been derived by various questionnaires; no study employs any direct quantification of ETS or of ETS remnant constituents in the actual environment of the nonsmoker. Questionnaires of smoking habits are notori- ously limited and often inaccurate, in part because of the "social taboo" that smoking has become and, in part, for other reasons related to the ETS social movement. Nevertheless, data from questionnaires about smoking behavior in spouses or in parents are the only estimates of ETS exposure available. Rates for three dis- eases in nonsmokers exposed (via surrogates) to ETS have been assessed: lung cancer, coro- nary heart disease, and respiratory illness in infants and small children. Only lung cancer will be discussed in this article. ETS and Lung Cancer What is the state of evidence on ETS and lung cancer? Almost all of the epidemiologic studies that are available to answer that ques- tion are based on the concept of some measure- ment of relative risk. None of the studies actu- ally has measured exposure to ETS or to any of its residual constituents directly. Relative risk is a relationship of the rate of the development of a disease (such as lung cancer) within a group of individuals exposed to some variable in the population studied (such as ETS) divided by the rate of the same disease in those not exposed to this variable. Relative risk is most frequently expressed as a "risk ratio," which is a calculated comparison of the rate of the disease studied in the exposed population divided by the rate of that disease in some control population not exposed to the variable studied. The terms "risk ratio" and "relative risk" are often used synonymously. Thus, the relative risk in all epidemiologic ETS studies on lung cancer is expressed as the rate of lung cancer in the ETS-exposed group (indi- viduals married to a household smoker) divided by the rate of lung cancer where there was no ETS exposure (no household smokers). If the disease rates were exactly the same in these two groups, the risk ratio would be 1.0. There have been 30 epidemiologic studies on spousal smoking and lung cancer published in the scientific literature. Twenty-seven of these epidemiological studies were case control stud- ies, where the effect of exposure to spousal smoking was evaluated retrospectively on data that had already been available for review. The "cases" in these case-control studies were non- smoking individuals with lung cancer married to smokers. The rate of lung cancer in these "cases" was compared, by the derived risk ratio, to the rate of lung cancer in "control" or nonsmoking individuals who were married to nonsmokers. Three of the studies followed cohort popula- tions of individuals exposed to spousal smoking prospectively over the course of time. A "cohort" is any designated group of people. A "cohort study" identifies a group of people that will be exposed to a risk and a group that will not be exposed to that risk, and then follows these groups over time to compare the rate of disease development as a function of exposure or no exposure. The first studies were published in 1982 and the last studies were published in 1990. The studies originate broadly from different parts of the world and, for the most part, involve evalu- ations of lung cancer in nonsmoking females married to a smoking male partner; eight of the studies have limited data on nonsmoking males married to smoking females. Some of the stud- 14 Consumers' Research

ies are quite small, listing fewer than 20 sub- jects; otliers are based on larger populations, with four studies reporting between 129 and 189 cancer cases. Of the 30 studies, six reported a statistically significant association (identified by a positive relative risk ratio in the spousally- exposed to the non-exposed population) and 24 of the studies reported no statistically signifi- cant effect. The average esti- mated relative risk ratio for each study and each sex is list- ed in Table 2, as are the confi- dence intervals reported by the authors or, where not reported, calculated by others in pub- lished review articles.4 Some of the negative studies- that is, some of the 24 studies that did not show a statistically significant association between the development of lung cancer and exposure to spousal smok- ing-contained data that sug- gested to the authors or to other reviewers a "positive trend." In most of science, "trends" do not count; data stand as either sta- tistically significant or not sta- tistically significant, with sig- nificance determined by specif- ic accepted rules of biostatis- tics. New rules should not be "made to fit" an otherwise unproved hypotheses, just because the subject is tobacco and the observed results do not support the hypothesis investi- gated. ETS Risk Weak A relative risk is called strong or it is called weak, depending on the degree of association, or the magnitude of the risk ratio. A strong relative risk would be reflected by a risk ratio of 5 to 20 or greater. Weak relative risks, by conventional defini- tion, have risk ratios in the range of 1 to 3 or so. Within 4A confidence interval is a range of values that has a specified probability of including the true value (as opposed to the estimated average value) within that range. In the data presented in Table 2, the confidence intervals are set such that there is a 95% probability that the true value will fall within the range of values listed. the 30 epidemiologic studies on ETS and lung cancer, there are 37 different total reported sets of risk ratios for male or female nonsmok- ers. None of the studies reports a strong rela- tive risk. Nine of the studies report risk ratios of less than 1.0. Thus, the results from all epidemio- (See SMOKE, page 33.) Table 2: Studies of ETS and Lung Cancer in Nonsmokers Study 95% Number Relative Confidence Sex of Cases Risk* Interval Case Control Studies Chan and Fung, 1982 F 34 0.75 (0.43, 1.30) Trichopoulos et a1.,1983 F 38 2.13** (1.18, 3.83) Correa et a1.,1983 F 14 2.07 (0.81, 5.26) M 2 1.97 (0.38, 10.29) Kabat and Wynder, 1984 F 13 0.79 (0.25, 2.45) M 5 1.00 (0.20, 5.07) Buffter et a1.,1984 F 33 0.80 (0.34, 1.81) M 5 0.51 (0.15, 1.74) Garfinkel et al., 1985 F 92 1.12 (0.94, 1.60) Wu et al., 1985 F 29 1.20 (0.50, 3.30) Akiba et ai., 1986 F 73 1.52 (1.00, 2.5) M 3 2.10 (0.5, 5.6) Lee et ai.,1986 F 22 1.03 (0.37, 2.71) M 8 1.31 (0.38, 4.59) Brownson et a1.,1987 F 19 1.68 (0.39, 2.97) Gao et a1.,1987 F 189 1.19 (0.6, 1.4) Humbie et a1.,1987 F 14 1.78 (0.6, 5.4) Koo et a1.,1987 F 51 1.55 (0.87, 3.09) Lam et ai., 1987 F 115 1.65** (1.16, 2.35) Pershagen et a1.,1987 F 33 1.20 (0.70, 2.10) Geng et a1.,1988 F 34 2.16 ** (1.03, 4.53) Inoue and Hirayama, 1988 F 18 2.55 (0.91, 7.10) Katada et al., 1988 F 17 - (NS;p=0.23) Lam and Cheng, 1988 F 37 2.01** (1.12, 1.83) Shimizu et a1.,1988 F 90 1.10 N/A He, 1990 F 45 0.74 (0.32, 1.68) Janerich et a1.,1990 F 129 0.93 (0.55, 1.57) Kabat, 1990 M 13 1.20 (0.54, 2.68) F 35 0.90 (0.46, 1.76) Kalandidi et a1.,1990 F 91 2.11 (1.09, 4.08) Sobue et a1.,1990 F 64 0.94 (0.62, 1.40) Svensson, 1990 F 17 1.20 (0.40, 2.90) Wu-Williams et al., 1990 F 205 0.7 (0.6, 0.9) Cohort Studies Garfinkei, 1981 F 88 1.17 (0.85, 1.89) (0.77, 1.61) Gillis et a1.,1984 F 6 1.00 (0.59, 17.85) M 4 3.25 Hirayama, 1984b F 163 1.45 (1.04 2.02) 1984a 7 2.28** (1.19 4.22) *Weak relative risks have risk ratios of between 1 and 3, or so. Any risk ratio below I represents a nega- tive relationship. Note that none of the studies show a strong relative risk. ** Statistically significant at the 5% level. July 1991 15

What to Know When Shopping for Tires oavidavs,rak he purchase of tires, depending on your vehicle and needs, can run several hun- dred dollars or more, and affects your everyday driving safety. So the more you know about the subject, the better the chances are that you will get exactly what you need-noth- ing more and nothing less. In the long run, this will save you time and, more importantly, money-while still keeping your vehicle com- fortable and safe to drive. The following article addresses some impor- tant considerations in tire purchase, including tire sizing, tire type, and warranty offerings. Tire Sizing Much of what you need to know about tires is printed right on the sidewall. This information includes the tire's size, as well as safety notices about load-carrying capacity, maximum infla- tion pressure, the Department of Transpor- tation certification, and descriptions of the materials used in the make-up of the tire. Sizing is one of the most misunderstood and understandably confusing parts of buying tires. The most widely used sizing system is the "P- Metric" system. To understand how this system works, let's choose one of the most common tire sizes today. Under the "P-Metric" system, this tire size is listed as "P195/75R14" on the sidewall. The P stands for passenger and means that the tire was designed and rated for use on a passenger vehicle. A light-truck tire would be represented by "LT." The 195 represents the "section width" of the tire, which is the sidewall to sidewall width, expressed in millimeters and measured at the widest point of the sidewall, when the tire is mounted on the correct size wheel. The 75 represents the aspect ratio of the tire, which is the ratio between the sidewall height and the section width of the tire. In this exam- ple, the sidewall is 75% as tall as the tire is Mr. Bystrak, who is certified by the National Institute of Automotive Service Excellence, is a tire dealer in Buffalo, New York. This article is adapted from his booklet "The Smart Shopper's Guide to Buying Tires," available for $5.95 from Info Industries, P.O. Box 1005, Buffalo, N.Y. 14224. (Bulk orders available.) wide, or 75% of 195 millimeters. The smaller the aspect ratio-also known as series or pro- file-of the tire, given the same section width, the shorter the tire. For example, a "60 series" tire would be shorter than a 70 series. Also, as the height of the tire decreases with the small- er series, the actual tread width will increase. (When a tire has no series designation-for example the European sized 165R13-the aspect ratio is understood to be 82.) The R indicates that the tire is a "radial." Other tire types are indicated by D for diagonal ply, or B for bias belted. These tire types are discussed below. The 14 is a measure of the rim diameter. Most common passenger tires come in 13-, 14-, or 15-inch rims, though some newer, higher performance cars are coming with 16- and 17- inch rims. Some high-performance tires carry an alpha- betic symbol denoting a speed rating. These let- ters correspond to a sustained performance level that the tire is capable of achieving safely. Speed-rated tires resist heat better than non- speed-rated tires, generally because of greater internal strength and reinforcement, but also tend to give a harsher ride. The most common speed ratings are as follows: S, rated to speeds up to 112 miles per hour (mph); T, rated to 118 mph; H, rated to 130 mph; V, rated to 149 mph; and Z, rated to 149+ mph. Changing Sizes W~kb While in most cases you may simply want to replace the tires the manufacturer provided with your car, you need not rule out changing ~ to a new tire size. But care must be taken when changing tire ~ sizes or aspect ratios so as not to undersize the ~, 16 Consumers' Research

tire for the car. Passenger tires of the exact same size can carry the same amount of load, no matter the manufacturer or design. A larger size tire, all other things being equal, will have a greater load-carrying capacity than a smaller size tire, because it holds more air. Load carry- ing capacity is the amount of weight the tire can safely support under the tire's maximum inflation pressure. So if a car requires a P195/75R14, changing to a P185/75R14 (smaller section width, and therefore less air capacity) or a P195/70R14 (lower aspect ratio, and therefore less air capacity) will be undersizing the tire, which risks premature tire wear or more serious tire failure due to the overloading. Changing to a lower aspect ratio, neverthe- less, will generally improve the handling char- acteristics of the vehicle. With a wider tread, the car will be more stable, will respond more quickly to steering, and will generally give you a better "feeling" of the road, as well as increasing traction when starting, stopping, or going around corners. Depending on tire design, however, switching to a lower aspect ratio may bring a harsher ride, as the shorter sidewall will absorb less road shock. To avoid undersizing when changing to a lower aspect ratio, you have to increase the sec- tion width to compensate for the decrease in sidewall height. Using the example above, you'd have to substitute a P205/70R14, or larg- er, to keep the same, or greater, load carrying capacity. Manufacturers often recommend an optional size for the vehicle. The Tire Guide, published by Bennett Garfield, which any competent tire dealer should have, lists virtually all cars and light trucks and their standard and approved optional tire sizes. The Tire Guide and a com- petent salesman can advise you of your options. Many cars can use tires at least one size over the standard size; too large, though, and you risk having clearance problems with the body of the car. In addition to increased handling and trac- tion, larger tires can provide an increase in ride comfort, because there is more tire to absorb any road shock from bumps, potholes, and other road irregularities. Also, a larger tire does not have to work as hard as a smaller one, and thus should last longer, all other factors being equal. Changing tire size, however, can affect the speedometer reading. A taller tire than original will cause the meter to read slower than the car is actually traveling. Further, in newer, com- puter-controlled cars-which receive informa- tion directly from the speedometer-meter error can cause the car to run rough, erratic, or not at all. Check with your local car dealer ser- vice department to see if such a change will affect your vehicle. Finally, whenever possible, do not mix tire sizes on the same vehicle. Deviation from uni- form sizing of all tires can cause erratic han- dling. Tire Type Very important to the safety, longevity, and ride of any particular tire is its construction. Generally, there are three types of tires on the road today: Diagonal Ply, or Bias, Tires. This is the oldest and simplest form of tire construction, but does not make for a very long-lasting tire. It is called diagonal because the fabric that makes up the tire overlaps itself in layers as the tire is put together; the layers run in diagonal lines across the tire. Because the layers overlap, they tend to rub against each other, causing friction and heat buildup as the tire moves down the road. The more friction and heat, the faster the tire will wear out. Also, with a bias design, there is no rein- forcement under the tread to keep the tread flat on the ground at all times. As the tire rotates, the tread face itself moves around on the road and wears down quickly. This exces- sive tread movement, or squirm, also reduces traction and stability because the tread is not always in full contact with the pavement. Diagonal ply tires represent the least expen- sive products on the market, but should never- theless be viewed in relation to their perfor- mance characteristics. Bias Belted. These, simply, are diagonal ply tires with a reinforcing belt under the tread. The belt helps keep the tread more stable and rigid, so that it stays in contact with the road- providing better traction and stability than conventional diagonal ply tires. Radial Tires. This is the latest, most popular method of tire construction, so-called because the fibers that make up the body of the tire run radially-at a 900 angle to the bead, or edge, from bead to bead. This method of construction gives less rolling resistance because the plies are not rubbing against each other, as in a bias tire. Radials always contain some sort of belt under the tread, which increases their effec- tiveness. Compared with other bias or bias-belt- ed construction, a radial offers several advan- July 1991 17

tages, including: less rolling resistance for increased fuel economy; less friction and heat buildup for longer tire life; easier rolling for smoother, quieter ride; and less tread "squirm" for better traction and wear. Tread Design Radials also offer more versatility in tread designs, offering "rib," "snow," and "all-sea- son" varieties. Rib. The rib design represents a tread that has several straight grooves running along the whole tread of the tire. Because of its simple tread design, it generally wears very evenly. Snow. The snow tread was designed because a rib tire did not have the traction that was need- ed for slippery ice and snow conditions. These tires have heavy, open lugs on the shoulder, and widely spaced tread patterns that clean themselves of snow and slush. The shoulder lugs bite into the ice and snow very well, but What About Uniform Tire Grading? Uniform Tire Quality Grading ratings are molded into the rubber on the side of pas- senger tires along with the other informa- tion on tire sidewalls. These ratings denote treadwear, traction, and temperature test results of the tire. The system was designed by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to rate the performance of tires so consumers could make informed decisions when purchasing them. The objec- tive is a good one, but, unfortunately, it has generated confusion and controversy, though not much help for purchasing deci- sions. The treadwear number is a comparative numerical rating, giving an indicator of how long a tire will last. For example, a tire rated "150" would theoretically wear 50% better than a tire rated "100." The testing is performed on a government-specified course in Texas, on which, basically, a con- voy of cars fitted with both test and control tires run on a 400-mile course, first break- ing in the test tires for 800 miles, then actu- ally testing the tires for another 6,200 miles. During the testing, the tires are rotated, front-end alignments are rechecked every 800 miles, and the tires are allowed to cool. From this, the treadwear rating is determined. This rating does not indicate "real world" tire mileage for a number of reasons. For example, nobody rotates their tires and checks alignment every 800 miles. Also, drivers of test cars drive under certain restrictions, such as having to slow down a certain distance before a stop sign. And, tires tested on a rear-wheel drive car could wear differently from those mounted on a front-wheel drive. Finally, in 7,200 miles, under. ideal conditions, treadwear can be 18 Consumers' Research minimal, or nonexistent-leaving the door open for inexact ratings by manufacturers. The rating might give an indicator of differ- ences within a specific manufacturer's tire line, but does not, for the most part, offer a good basis of comparison between different brands. The traction grades appear as A, B, or C (from highest to lowest) next to the tread- wear rating. In the traction test, a tire is attached to a trailer and locked on a wet surface at a specified speed. The friction generated by the tire is measured and, from this, the rating is assigned. This tests for one condition only-stop- ping on wet pavement. Snow and ice trac- tion, cornering traction, dry traction, accel- eration traction, and hydroplaning are not indicated in the rating. A tire with the low mark of C might be excellent in snow, or cornering; a tire rated A might be relatively poor under these conditions. Following traction is the temperature rat- ing, also denoted as, from highest to lowest, A, B, or C. Under the temperature test, a tire is pressed against a revolving drum to simulate a specific load. The tire is spun at a certain speed for a certain length of time. All tires must pass minimum requirements to be allowed on the market for sale. These minimum requirements are denoted by the C rating and represent the tire's ability to dissipate and withstand heat at a sustained speed of 85 mph. The ratings B and A repre- sent tests at higher sustained speeds of 100 and 115 mph, respectively. This is the most straightforward test of the three, and gives a more realistic indica- tor of a tire's performance. Still, keep in mind that even the C rating represents test speeds rarely seen by most drivers.

also make for a very noisy, as well as fast-wear- ing, tire on dry roads. Most snow tires use a softer compound in the tread rubber, which allows the tread to stay flexible in the cold for excellent traction, yet causes it to wear more quickly on dry pavement. All-Season. The all-season, or all-weather tire, gives good dry-weather traction, and most are designed to be quiet, like the rib design. Yet this tire really shines when the weather gets bad. Unlike the rib tire, it has grooves cut in the shoulder tread, which in the rain help chan- nel water away from the tread to the sides, away from the tire. This helps the tire resist hydroplaning-when the tire loses contact with the road because it cannot effectively channel water away from the tread. Hydroplaning also can occur because of poor tread design, heavy rain, low tread depth (bald tire), excessive speed, or a combination of these factors. For such a tire, look for an all-weather designation, denoted as "M+S" (for mud and snow) on the sidewall. Generally, a tire with an M+S rating will perform better in adverse weather conditions than one without the rat- ing. For some people, all-season tires provide ade- quate traction for their needs and eliminate the need for winter tire changeover, but I have yet to hear of any all-season that is as good in ice and snow as a snow tire. If you don't get much snow, have a heavy vehicle, or one with front- wheel drive-which handles better in snow than most rear drives-you may be able to get by with just all-seasons. Tire Warranties There are three types of warranties you can get when you purchase tires: the standard war- ranty, the road hazard warranty, and the mileage warranty. Standard Warranty. The standard warranty that should come with every tire you buy covers any problem with materials or workmanship. Essentially it covers any defect that is directly the fault of the tire itself and usually has a pro- vision for free replacement before a certain per- centage of tread is used. Some tires are replaced free if there is a defect within the first 25% of the tread, for example. After the free replacement period, the tire is "pro rated" for the amount of tread that you used before the tire had a problem. Examples of "workmanship or material relat- ed conditions" include, but are not limited to: belt shifts, tread separations, and ply gaps. They don't include uneven wear caused by a mechanical problem with the vehicle, accidents or abuse, punctures or bruises caused by impacts, or anything not caused by the tire itself. Some manufacturers extend this warran- ty only to the original purchaser-so keep track of your receipts to be safe. Road Hazard Warranty. The road hazard warran- ty can save you money if you ever use it. This warranty is usually optional and covers any non-repairable damage to your tires. This includes blowouts caused by impacts, non- repairable sidewall damage (sidewall punctures should never be repaired), cuts, snags, or any puncture in the tread that is too large to repair. The price for this extra coverage is usually nominal, and, in my opinion, an excellent buy. Again, ask about the specifics of this type of warranty, as they can vary. Mileage Warranty. The mileage warranty, for the most part, is offered only for "premium" grade tires as an added selling point. Mileage warranties can be complicated; in order to col- lect on or get credit with such a warranty, the tire has to be worn completely evenly, with no signs of alignment or other mechanical wear, abuse, or neglect. Correct air pressure must be maintained, and maintenance schedules often must be followed. Also the price on which war- ranty credit is calculated may be higher than the selling price, making warranty replacement less attractive as the tire accumulates miles. Nevertheless, a mileage warranty usually is an excellent indicator of how long a tire will actu- ally last when maintained properly. At the Shop It is very important to have the wheels bal- anced when installing new tires. This is a pro- cedure where weight is added to the tire/wheel assembly to offset any imbalance in the assem- bly. Even a brand-new tire with a brand-new wheel needs to be balanced as an assembly, because each is manufactured with a certain amount of imperfections-and such imperfec- tions need to be balanced out in order to get a smooth, vibration-free ride, and proper, even treadwear. All tires need to be balanced, front and rear; you can get vibration from any tire position. If a tire assembly is properly balanced, it can still vibrate as a result of a bad tire, or, more likely, a bent rim. And, finally, remember that tires, like many other consumer products, aren't always the (See TIRES, page 34.) July 1991 19

Viewpoint: The Great American Dairy Product Heist Jameseovard P ince 1980 federal dairy policy has cost the average American family enough to buy its own dairy cow. The federal government has been awash with surplus dairy products since 1979: Uncle Sam bought the equivalent of almost nine billion pounds of milk last year, and expects to buy over eight billion pounds this year. The federal dairy price support program obliges the govern- ment to buy unlimited amounts of milk at a set price. The federal program sets a price floor in the marketplace, and guarantees that dairy prices will not fall below the level that Congress decrees. Naturally, this level is almost always significantly higher than the market price that would otherwise prevail. And because the federal price is higher, dairymen respond by producing dairy surpluses. Congress attempted to solve the dairy sur- plus problem a few years back by paying dairy- men more than $1.3 billion to slaughter more than one million cows. Under the 1986-1987 Dairy Termination Program, 144 dairy owners got more than $1 million each to take a five- year vacation from dairying, and one California producer received $20 million. Yet, as the General Accounting Office noted: "Total milk production did not decrease because nonpartici- pating farmers increased their production dur- ing the program period." Despite this failure, a national commission of dairymen has recom- mended more Bossy-massacres. Retail milk prices are also increased by byzantine milk marketing regulations. The goal of the federal milk marketing policy is to make each small geographical region self-sufficient in milk. Milk marketing regulations take up three separate volumes of the Code of Federal Regulations and require 600 federal employees to administer. The regulations were begun in the 1930s, when roads and refrigeration tech- nology were comparatively primitive, and have been retained for half a century despite vast increases in technology and transportation that Mr. Bovard, author of The Farm Fiasco, is an ad,junct scholar at the Cato Institute, a public policy group in Washington, D.C. should have made such policies a laughing- stock. Fluid milk is approximately 87% water. It is easy to dry out milk produced in a low-cost-of- production area, ship it to a high-cost-of-pro- duction area, and reconstitute it. Reconstituted milk tastes almost exactly like fresh fluid milk and could cost up to 30 cents a gallon less. But allowing dried milk to compete against local fresh milk is effectively banned by the federal government as a threat to local milk monopo- lies. The reconstituted milk ban sacrifices the most productive to the least productive dairy farmers. If reconstituted milk were legal, dairy farmers in the natural dairy regions of the United States could produce a surplus that would provide citizens elsewhere with much cheaper milk. A 1988 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) study estimated that allow- ing reconstituted milk could save taxpayers and consumers over $1.4 billion a year. Dairying is one of our most protected indus- tries, with quotas limiting imports to roughly 2% of domestic consumption. Government first prohibits American consumers from purchasing cheese, butter, and nonfat dry milk from 80% of the world's dairy producers, and then concocts a system to "protect" consumers against a shortage from the other 20% of dairy produc- ers. Many American dairymen are hopelessly 20 Consumers' Research

uncompetitive by international standards: Australian and New Zealand farmers can pro- duce milk for less than half the cost of the aver- age American farmer. American dairy prices have been double or triple world price levels for most of the 1980s. The U.S. International Trade Commission estimated that dairy import quotas are so strict that in 1986 they were the equivalent of a 142% tariff on dry milk, a 172% tariff on cheese, and a 190% tariff on butter. Yet, even though American dairymen cannot compete with New Zealand farmers, the United States is a major dairy exporter. On March 1, 1991, the USDA announced a major expansion of dairy export subsidies. The U.S. government is currently paying U.S. farmers more than $1 a pound for butter, and selling it to foreigners for roughly half the price. At a time when many Americans cannot afford to buy milk, the USDA will spend more than $50 million to dump 140,000 tons of U.S. dry milk on world markets at firesale prices. Why is the United States a dairy exporter? Largely in order to dispose of the evidence of the failure of U.S. dairy policy. In the early 1980s, the USDA was embarrassed by news sto- ries about massive mountains of surplus butter, milk, and cheese. Exporting the surplus at a loss helps the USDA avoid a public relations disaster, and it also allows Congress and the dairy lobby to deny that a surplus exists and thus defeat efforts to lower prices in the United States. The Office of Technology Assessment esti- mates that milk output per cow could double and that 5,000 large dairy farms could supply the nation's milk needs by the year 2000. The cost of dairy production fell 4% in 1987 alone, and milk output per cow jumped 3% in 1988. Computerized feeding methods can boost milk yields another 5% without increasing a herd's total feed requirement. Artificial insemination, embryo transfers, and cloning are helping to boost average dairy cow productivity by a steady 2% to 3% to 4% a year. However, the time bomb ticking away be- neath the federal dairy program is bovine growth hormones (BGH), which can boost milk production by up to 30% per cow at little addi- tional cost. The Food and Drug Administration has concluded that there is no significant dif- ference in milk from regular cows and from cows treated with bovine growth hormone- which is produced naturally in all cows-and is expected to approve BGH early next year. Bills have already been introduced in the Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Vermont legislatures calling for bans on BGH. (See "Cow Hormones: Safe For Consumers?" CR, January 1990.) By sharply increasing dairy productivity, BGH could destroy federal regulators' ability to control national milk markets tightly. Naturally, this terrifies the farm groups that have done so well from federal intervention. The federal dairy program has cost more than $5 billion since 1980. Thanks to import barriers and marketing order restrictions on the internal dairy trade, dairy prices have been between 30% and 200% higher than would oth- erwise have been the case. A USDA study esti- mated that the dairy program cost consumers between $5 and $7 billion a year. This amounts to more than $50 billion since 1980. The aver- age American family has paid more than $1,000 since 1980 for the dairy program-enough to buy a used dairy cow. Adding insult to a history of injury, the Senate recently voted to force Americans to buy thicker, less fluid milk by having milk proces- sors dump surplus milk powder into fluid milk to eliminate surpluses. The dairy program must be scrapped. The federal government should not be making good food more expensive for Americans to buy. ® Reprinted, with permission, from The Free Market, a publication of the Ludwig Von Mises Institute, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-5301. -----------1 ~ ---~ I CHANGE OF I Subscription Service I I ADDRESS AND ~ TO SUBSCRIBE OR RENEW: I RENEWAL: 0 new gubscription 0 1 year $24 (USA) I I ( 0 renewal 0 1 year $28 (Canada I Please attach I and fareign) I I I I ~ the mailing label from the front cover when writing about I I Payment enclosed I I I I I I' service or change of addreaa. Allow 6-8 weeke for change of addres. to take efreot. Thank you. I I I MA I 0 Bill me L TO: Consume P.O. Box Initial here s' Research Inc. 642 i I ---~ Holmes, PA 19043 <77~ I ~ Name I I Address ~ I City State Zip W I ~ I I G"T ~ L---------------- J July 1991 21 I

You don't have to be an American to die of a heart attack. You also don't have to overeat. Or consume excess amounts of cholesterol. Or ignore high blood pressure. Or smoke. But that's what a large segment of this country's population does. And that's one reason the United States has the highest incidence of heart attack in the world. At the American Heart Association, we're trying to help Americans change the way they live. And die. # 1%pP American Heart Association WERE FIGHTING FOR YOUR UFE This space provided as a public service. c t

Size Counts Death Rates In Popular Cars IC ccupant deaths occur far more often in some cars than in others. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety research- The mix of occupant deaths between single- and multiple-vehicle crashes varied consider- ably, too, with small cars usually having higher proportions of deaths in single-vehicle crashes than large cars. Chevrolet's Corvette Coupe had the highest proportion of single-vehicle crash deaths (83%) among all 134 cars. Buick's Century two-door and Electra station wagon had the lowest (13%). Another important influence on death rates, besides car size, is driver age. Cars with high percentages of fatal-crash-involved drivers who are under 30 years old tended to have higher death rates. The sex of the driver is important, too. Cars with high percentages of female drivers tended to have lower rates. These three factors-car size. driver age and sex-explain some differences in death rates among cars. But they don't explain them all. Volkswagen's Cabriolet/Rabbit convertible, for example, had a relatively low death rate (1.3), even though it's small and had a relatively high percentage of drivers under 30 (71%). Still another influencing factor involves the presence or absence of automatic restraints. Most of the 134 car series were not equipped with automatic restraints during 1984-88, but all 1990 and later models of the same cars (not passenger vans) do have such restraints. Death rates for the newer models equipped with air bags can be expected to be lower than the rates shown in the tables for corresponding 1984-88 models. To account for the effects of car size and driver age and sex on death rates, Institute researchers computed a predicted death rate for each car series using its actual wheelbase, proportion of young drivers, and proportion of male drivers. ~ What's especially interesting are the differ- ~ ences that the Institute's researchers found ~ between individual car series' predicted and w actual death rates (as depicted in the tables). ~ This comparison tells us how much better or ~ worse each of the car series performed than we j4. would have expected, given the car's size and = the age and sex of the drivers who were in its ~.a fatal crashes. 1R7 ers computed death rates for 1984-88 model cars during calender years 1985-89 and found that, among 134 series, the one with the lowest death rate was Volvo's 240 station wagon with 0.5 deaths for each 10,000 of these cars regis- tered. The car with the highest rate was Chev- rolet's Corvette Coupe, a small sports car (4.7 per 10,000). The Corvette's death rate was more than nine times as high as the Volvo's (see tables, pages 24 and 25). For each car series, rates were computed from the total number of occupant deaths and registrations in the five calender years, 1985- 89. (A car series is a family within a make with the same wheelbase and a degree of commonali- ty in construction such as body, chassis, etc.) Results for 1984-88 series are presented only for those with at least 150,000 registration dur- ing 1985-89 (1989 model cars aren't included because registrations are counted midyear when new cars are still being sold). Results for all cars and for each car size/body style group were computed from death and registration counts for all car series, regardless of numbers registered. Car size is an important influencing factor on death rates. Of the 14 vehicle series with the lowest death rates, five are large, and seven are midsize. Only two are small. Nine of the 13 cars with the highest death rates are small. The other four are midsize. None is large. Large station wagons, large two-door cars, and large luxury cars are the groups with the fewest deaths per 10,000 registered cars. The group with the highest number of deaths per 10,000 registrations is midsize sports cars. Death rates vary not only by car size but also within size and body style groups. Among small four-door cars, for example, the Saab 900 had the lowest rate (0.6). The rate for the four-door Chevrolet Sprint, was more than seven times as high (4.5). Information for this article was provided by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. July 1991 23

Actual and Predicted Deaths per 10,000 Registered Passenger Cars, 1984-88 Models Model Car Actual Predicted Actual Diff. from Predicted Years Make Rate Rate Better Worse Station Wagons & Vans Large 84-88 Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser 0.7 1.4 50% Pontiac Safari/Parislenne 0.7 1.5 53% Mercury Grand Marquis 0.8 1.3 38% Dodge Caravan 1.0 1.3 23% Ford Crown Victoria 1.0 1.2 17% Plymouth Voyager 1.0 1.3 23% Chevrolet Caprice 1.1 1.4 21% Buick Electra 1.1 1.4 21% 85-88 GMC Safari Van i.t 1.2 8% 86-88 Ford Aerostar 1.1 1.2 8% 85-88 Chevrolet Astro Van 1.2 1.6 25% All 1.0 1.3 Midsize 84-88 Volvo 240 0.5 1.5 67% 86-88 Ford Taurus 1.1 1.5 27% 84-88 Buick Century 1.2 1.5 20% Pontiac 6000 1.2 1.4 14% Chevrolet Celebrity 1.4 1.7 18% Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera 1.4 1.4 American Eagle 1.5 1.3 15% Plymouth Reliant 1.6 . 1.7 6% Chevrolet Cavalier 1.8 1.7 6% Dodge Aries 2.2 1.6 38% All 1.6 1.7 Small 84-88 Volkswagon Vanagon 0.6 1.6 62% 85-88 Subaru DUGL 4WD 1.3 2.0 35% 84-88 Toyota Tercel 4WD 1.4 1.8 22% Toyota Van 1.5 2.3 35% 85-88 Subaru DL/GL 1.7 1.7 87-88 Ford Escort 1.8 2.4 25% All 1.8 2.1 Four Door Cars Large 84-88 Mercury Grand Marquis 1.3 1.3 85-88 Buick Electra 1.5 1.4 7% Oldsmobile Ninety-Eight 1.5 1.4 7% 84-88 Ford Crown Victoria 1.6 1.5 7% Chevrolet Caprice/Impala 1.7 1.3 31% 87-88 Oldsmobile Delta 88 1.8 1.2 50 % Pontiac Bonneville 1.9 1.6 19% Buick LeSabre 2.0 1.5 33% All 1.5 1.4 Midsize 84-88 Volvo 240 0.8 1.7 53% 85-88 Toyota Cressida 0.9 1.9 53% 87-88 Toyota Camry 1.2 1.5 20% 84-88 Peugeot 505 1.3 1.9 32% Oldsmobile Firenza 1.4 1.8 22% 86-88 Honda Accord 1.4 2.0 30% Ford Taurus 1.4 1.7 18 % 85-88 Chrysler LeBaron GTS 1.4 1.9 26% 87-88 Nissan Stanza 1.5 2.1 29% 86-88 Mercury Sable 1.5 1.6 6% 84-88 Pontiac 6000 1.5 1.7 12% Chrysler New Yorker (E Body) 1.5 1.6 6% Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera 1.5 1.6 6% Cadillac Cimarron 1.5 1.6 6% Buick Century 1.5 1.5 88 Ford Tempo 1.7 2.0 15% 84-88 Buick Skyhawk 1.8 1.6 13% 85-88 Dodge Lancer 1.8 2.0 10 % 84-88 Chevrolet Celebrity 1.8 1.6 13% 85-88 Plymouth Caravelle 1.9 1.5 27% 84-88 Chrysler LeBaron 2.0 1.7 18% Dodge 600 2.0 1.7 18% 87-88 Chevrolet Corsica 2.0 2.1 5% 84-88 Plymouth Reliant 22 1.7 29% Pontiac Sunbird 2.3 1.9 21% 87-88 Nissan Maxima 2.4 22 9% ~ 84-88 Chevrolet Cavalier 2.4 1.9 26 % Dodge Aries 2.5 1.7 47% C41 All 1.7 1.7 ~ Small 84-88 Saab 900 0.6 2.4 75% ~ 85-88 Volkswagon Jetta 1.2 2.8 57% ~ 87-88 Nissan Sentra 1.6 2.3 30% 85-88 Plymouth Colt 1.9 2.4 21 % CID Volkswagon Golf 1.9 2.5 24% 86-88 Mazda 323 1.9 2.6 27% lt\z 85-88 Subaru DLIGL Sedan 2.0 2.1 5% 24 Consumers' Research

Modet Car Actual Predicted Actual Diff, from Predicted Years Make Rate Rate Better Worse 85-88 Dodge Colt 2.2 2.5 12% 84-88 Dodge Omni 2.2 2.3 4% 85-88 Chevrolet Nova 2.2 2.1 5% ' 87-88 Ford Escort 2.5 1.9 19% 84-88 Plymouth Horizon 2.5 2.1 32% 86-88 Hyundai Excel/Mitsubishi Precis 2.7 2.9 7% 85-88 Chevrolet Spectrum 2.8 2.6 8% 86-88 ChevroietSprint 4.5 2.8 61% All 2.1 2.3 Two Door Cars Large All 1.0 1.5 Midsize ' 87-88 Honda Accord 0.8 1.9 58% 84-88 Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera 1.41.5 7% Oldsmobile Cutlass RWD 1.6 1.8 11% Buick Century 1.8 1.5 20% Mercury Cougar 2.1 2.1 Ford Thunderbird 22 2.2 Buick Skyhawk 2.2 22 Chevrolet Celebrity 2.3 1.6 44% Pontiac Sunbird 2.3 2.5 8% ' 87-88 Pontiac Grand Am 2.3 2.5 8% 84-88 Plymouth Reliant 2.3 1.7 35% Dodge Aries 2.4 1.8 33% Chevrolet Monte Carlo 2.5 1.9 32% Oldsmobile Firenza 2.6 2.4 8% Chevrolet Cavalier 2.8 2.7 4% All 2.1 2.1 Small 84-88 Volkswagon CabrioleVRabbit Conv. 1.3 3.0 57% 85-88 Volkswagon Golf 1.5 2.9 48% 87-88 Nissan Pulsar 1.6 5.8 72% 86-88 Toyota Celica 1.7 2.8 39% 87-88 Nissan Sentra 1.7 2.9 41% 84-88 Subaru Hatchback 1.8 2.7 33% Saab 900 1.9 2.6 27% 87-88 Toyota Tercei 2.2 2.9 24 % Plymouth Colt 2.6 2.3 13% 85-88 Dodge Colt 2.4 3.1 23% 84-88 Nissan 200SX 2.7 3.5 23% Volkswagon Scirocco 3.0 4.1 27% ' 87-88 Ford Escort 3.1 3.2 3% 86-88 Hyundai ExceVMitsubishi Precis 3.3 2.8 18% 85-88 Chevrolet Spectrum 3.5 3.2 9% 86-88 Yugo 3.6 3.3 9% 85-88 Chevrolet Sprint 4.3 3.0 43% All 2.6 3.0 Luxury Cars Large 84-88 Lincoln Town Car 0.9 1.1 18% "* 84-88 Mercedes SDL/SEL Series 0.9 1.8 50% 85-88 Cadillac Fleetwood/Deville 2D 1.0 1.3 23% "86-88 Mercedes 260E/300D/E 1.1 1.8 39% 85-88 Cadillac Fleetwood/Deville 4D 1.2 1.3 8% 84-88 Cadillac Brougham 4D 1.3 1.2 8"/0 All 1.0 1.3 Midsize 84-88 Volvo 740/760 40 0.7 1.8 61% 86-88 Acura Legend 4D 0.8 1.7 53% 84-88 Audi 5000 4D 0.9 1.8 50% BMW 500 Series 1.0 1.9 47% Lincoln Mark VII 1.4 1.8 22% 85-88 BMW 300 Series 4D 2.0 1.8 11% 84-88 BMW 300 Series 2D 2.1 2.9 28% All 1.3 1.9 Sorts Cars M dsize 84-88 Pontiac Firebird 3.2 32 Ford Mustang Conv. 4.0 3.8 5% Ford Mustang 4.3 3.8 13% Chevrolet Camero 4.3 3.5 23% All 4.0 3.5 Small 84-88 Porsche 944 Coupe 22 2.9 24% 84-88 Nissan 300ZX 2+2 2.7 2.7 86-88 Mazda RX7 Coupe 2.9 3.0 3% 85-88 Toyota MR2 3.0 4.1 27% 84-88 Pontiac Fiero 3.5 3.8 8% Nissan 300ZX 4.0 3.8 5% Chevrolet Corvette Coupe 4.7 3.7 27% All 3.4 3.7 Average for All Cars 2.0 *Models equipped with automatic safety belts. "Modeis equipped with air bags. SOURCE: The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, "Status Report" Aprii 13, 1991. July 1991 25

How Useful Are Food Standards? © hat constitutes a syrup? How much of it can be in a specified size can of pears? How much fat is in pasteurized cheese? How many eggs are in mayonnaise? Decisions about such questions, and many more, have been made for commercial food products. The ingredients and proportions have been estab- lished in federal food standards. To "promote honesty and fair dealings in the interest of consumers" is a phrase in the open- ing sentence of the federal definition of food standards, which became law in 1938. This phrase forms the philosophical underpinning of food standards. The purpose of food standards has always been to prevent cheating in the marketplace. In ancient times, Greeks and Romans had laws against practices such as watering of wine, or short measuring of grain. During the Renais- sance, wine, ale, flour, and oil were tested to detect possible adulteration, and ingredients used in making sausages and blood pudding were scrutinized. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) formulated standards to specify ingredients that were required in standardized foods. However, the law did not require a full list of ingredients on the label. The rationale for this exemption was an assumption that consumers would be familiar with the ingredients. There was no need to have the ingredients appear on the labels. The food standards allowed for "optional ingredients," substances not normally found in recipes. If used, these ingredients had to be declared on the label. While consumers did benefit from food stan- dards, the laws were formulated mainly by food manufacturers for self-protection. They never intended to standardize all food products. Many manufacturers regarded the formulas of their specialty products as trade secrets to be guard- ed. They rejected any suggestion of full disclo- sure, and felt that it would place them at an unfair disadvantage. The Congress protected such formulas by requiring only that all ingredients be listed on non-standardized foods, in the order of predom- Mrs. Hunter is food editor of CR. Beatrice Trum Hunter inance by weight. Artificial colorings and chem- ical preservatives, if present, needed to be stat- ed. Spices, flavorings, and colorings could be declared in general terms. At a later date, this requirement was modified. Some individuals need to avoid certain ingredients (such as Tartrazine coloring, FD&C Yellow No. 5 which, if used, must be declared specifically on the label). Since 1938, many major categories of foods have been standardized, covering more than 300 different types of food products. (See box on page 27.) Formulating standards turned out to be a frustrating, complex, and protracted task. Sometimes, the interests of various groups coincided. More often, they clashed. For exam- ple, the bread standard hearings, marked by seemingly endless controversy, required a decade for completion. The peanut butter hear- ings required even more time, with arguments, legal challenges, and ultimately, a formulated standard. In addition to the FDA's standards, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) established standards of composition. Any product that contained more than 2% cooked meat or poul- try would be subjected to the USDA's labeling policy. The agency planned to preapprove labels. Similar to the FDA's regulations, the USDA's rules were also extensive. However, the two agencies approached standards differently. The FDA used a "recipe" approach, specifying every 26 Consumers' Research

ingredient and its proportions, but not requir- ing this information to be stated on the label. The USDA allowed processors to decide ques- tions about food formulation and proportions of ingredients, but required that this information be stated on the label. As many new and complex variations of stan- dardized foods have been introduced into the marketplace, controls are sometimes divided between the two agencies' sets of standards. For example, the USDA regulates labels on frozen pizza containing pepperoni; the FDA regulates labels on frozen cheese pizza, if the product contains no meat. The lack of uniformi- ty in regulations between the two agencies fore- shadows confusion in the marketplace when the new nutritional labeling legislation becomes effective in 1993. Modifying Food Standards Food standards have never been immutable. From the beginning, mechanisms were estab- lished to amend and modify standards. Repeat- edly, these mechanisms have been used. In one calendar year, more than 130 separate actions were taken to change existing standards. By the 1970s, the entire process was stream- lined for amending standards. Instead of writ- ing a "recipe" the FDA would permit processors to use any ingredient that was judged "safe" and "suitable." This change would allow, and even encourage, innovation in food processing. "Safe" signifies that the ingredient is either on the GRAS list (Generally Recognized as Safe), or covered by an approved food additive regulation. "Suitable" signifies that an ingredi- ent or additive has a functional purpose in a food product, and that it is used at a level no higher than necessary to achieve its intended purpose. Food manufacturers who wished to use safe and suitable substitute ingredients could be reasonably assured that the FDA would have no grounds to deny their use, provided that competitive processors raised no objections. Any challenges would require further evalua- tion. In numerous cases that followed, objections were raised. Many involved the concept of "nutritional equivalency" for many substitute ingredients that were flooding the marketplace. The basic arguments were well publicized in the case of imitation versus real cheeses in pizzas. "Safe and suitable" became crucial in amend- ments to some standards, as reflected in the case of diluted orange juice drinks. The FDA was thwarted for more than four years from making a final decision, while the case was argued in the courts. If any ingredient in the standard "recipe" is omitted from a food product, the product is regarded as inferior. Automatically, the product needs to be labeled "imitation." Generally, these products are substandard, such as sausage containing excessive cereal; water in place of meat; jam or jelly with less fruit; or cheese with more water and less fat. The term "imitation" was anathema to food manufacturers, who knew that having it on labels would discourage sales. The imitation label requirement was circumvented, artfully, by the creation of other terms. For example, substandard mayonnaises become "mayonette gold," "yoganaise," or "whip," Similarly, a jam became "bread-spread;" a vinegar, "salad bouquet;" and peanut butter, "swirl," and "spread." On occasion, the term imitation has been Categories of Regulated Foods What follow are major categories of foods regulated under federal law for definition and standards of identity, quality, and/or fill of container: • bakery products • canned fruits and fruit juices • canned vegetables • cereal flours and related products • cheese and cheese products • cocoa and cocoa products • dressings for food: salad dressing, mayonnaise, french dressing • eggs and egg products • fish • food flavorings • frozen desserts • frozen fruits • frozen vegetables • fruit butters, jellies, preserves, and related products • fruit pies • macaroni and noodle products • margarine ® • milk and cream ~ • nonalcoholic carbonated beverages ~ • nut products • nutritive sweeteners ~ • shellfish • table syrups ~ • tomato products CZ July 1991 27

applied to products merely because they failed to fit the standard. For example, a peanut but- ter product, consisting of 100% peanuts, was actually higher than the standard which requires only 90% peanuts. But, in this particu- lar product, the slightly bitter skin and heart of the peanut were ground, along with the peanut. Because the standard made no provision for skin and heart, the product had to be labeled "imitation peanut butter." Recently, a similar situation was faced by an ice cream manufacturer who attempted to pro- duce what was perceived as a healthy ice cream, formulated without fat. A minimum of 10% milkfat is specified in the current standard. The manufacturer needed to delete the words "ice cream" from the label, and replace it with the phrase "non-fat frozen dessert." Mean- while, a petition has been filed to amend the standard. Are Standards Still Relevant? From the beginning, consumers have expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of full label disclosure of ingredients on standardized food products. The FDA insisted that the law did not grant the agency the authority to demand this requirement, but that processors were free to list them voluntarily. In 1969, the report issued by the White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health recommended improved food labeling and stated that consumers were entitled to more meaningful and useful information than was available. "The existence of definitions and standards of identity for any food should not exempt that food from all requirements for list- ing ingredients on the label." This recommen- dation was followed by several congressional attempts to mandate full ingredient disclosure on labels of standardized foods, but failed to pass. Consumers are still puzzled and unin- formed. Those who seek information about the FDA food standards must search in the Code of Federal Regulations, or contact the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition in Washington, D.C. A "consumer reference list" of the USDA food standards was made available from the USDA in Washington, D.C. At present, many food processors object to food standards, which they view as "archaic," "arcane," and "rigid." Critics view standards as obstacles that forestall innovation and limit flexibility in food product development in pro- cessing and packaging. Some health professionals claim that dietary priorities now demand new types of foods which cannot be developed within the restrictive framework of the standards. Some economists claim that food standards contribute to high food prices. While standards were designed to protect the marketplace against lower quality, certain ones may work to prohibit the introduction of lower cost safe sub- stitute ingredients that would not necessarily lower food quality. Another economic argument against food standards as they exist in the United States is that they were formulated with scant attention to global developments. The Codex Alimen- tarius, an international organization under the auspices of two groups within the United Nations-the World Health Organization and the Food and Agricultural Organization-has been working for years to establish voluntary international food standards. Although both the FDA and USDA have been represented at Codex meetings since the beginning, the U.S. standards differ from the Codex. By failing to resolve these differences, the United States cre- ated artificial barriers and unnecessary restric- tions preventing the access to international trade. Food standard proponents believe that the regulations continue to be beneficial. Propo- nents point out that the presence of standards helps to maintain product integrity in the mar- ketplace, and discourages competition from products of inferior quality. Proponents discount the view that standards are inflexible. They point to numerous amend- ments made to standards over the years; to the streamlining of administrative procedures; and to the FDA's willingness to accommodate to new developments. For example, the FDA now allows food processors to deviate from a stan- 28 Consumers' Research

t A History of Food Standards In early rural America, most foods were pro- duced and consumed at home. By the late 1800s, the pattern began to change. Much baking, canning, and preserving was shifted away from home into factory production. This development was a mixed blessing. It lightened the household chores. But, as com- mercial competition intensified, unethical food manufacturers debased products for higher profits. Some common practices were to mix charcoal with ground pepper, starch with cocoa, and cottonseed meal with mus- tard. "Raspberry jam" might consist of glu- cose, hayseed, and artificial colorings or fla- vorings. Harmful substances such as borax, salicylic acid, and formaldehyde were used as preservatives. Food labels gave no hint about the presence of such ingredients. Indeed, some labels guaranteed that the products were "pure" even though these noxious sub- stances were present. In the early 1900s, Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, chief of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Chemistry (forerunner of the Food and Drug Administration) recognized the need for food standards. Lacking them, Wiley was forced to challenge food adulterators in court, case-by-case. This procedure was oner- ous and unsatisfactory. Hundreds of cases were won, but many key cases were lost. "Advisory standards" were suggested, but ignored by unethical processors. Undesirable practices continued to flourish, and became intolerable by the time of the depression years of the early 1930s. Ethical food proces- sors who wished to sell quality products had to compete against those who ignored the advisory standards. The canning and preserving processors, especially, were affected. They were caught, repeatedly, in a vicious cycle of needing to lower quality in order to maintain competi- tive prices. The canners knew that, eventual- ly, substandard food products would erode consumer confidence. Through their trade organization, canners urged Congress to amend the 1906 Food and Drugs Act, and to authorize official standards of identity, as well as standards of quality, and/or fill of container, for canned foods. The so-named "canners' bill" (McNary-Mapes Amendment) was enacted in 1930. Jam and jelly processors had been caught in a similar dilemma. Increasingly, unethical preserve processors were replacing fruit with more and more water, sugar, and pectin in products. Flagrant cases were taken to court, and the federal government was asked to demonstrate what consumers expected in buying commercial jams and jellies. No tangible proof could be offered. All that the government lawyers could show in evi- dence were cookbooks, giving traditional recipes for jams and jellies made in the home, and the typical proportions of ingredi- ents in recipes. The jam and jelly manufacturers thought that the passage of the canners' bill would solve their problems, too. They requested the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture to issue stan- dards for jams and jellies, but the request was denied. The agency chose a narrow legal interpretation, claiming that Congress had intended to provide standards only for canned fruits and vegetables. The problem remained, largely unresolved. dard by applying for a "temporary marketing permit." If granted, the permit allows, for pur- pose of test marketing, the introduction of a new product that differs from the standard, but uses the standardized name. Examples are "light" product labels for ice cream, sour cream, and eggnog, which have been allowed under temporary marketing permits. Under the new federal labeling legislation, to be effective in 1993, Congress has granted the FDA and USDA greater flexibility with food standards. Administrative procedures will be speedier than formerly to amend most existing standards, or to formulate new ones. Only dairy products and maple syrup standards will con- tinue to undergo the old lengthy process for changes. These exemptions were made to pla- cate affected groups. Overall, standards have succeeded in improv- ing the marketplace. The once rampant gross forms of cheating have become virtually nonex- istent. Standards, always subjected to modifica- tion to meet changing needs, continue to serve as vigilant guardians that discourage food debasement. In the words of the original stan- dards legislation, such control helps "to pro- mote honesty and fair dealings in the interest of consumers" as well as food manufacturers.® July 1991 29

IRAs For First- Ti m H m r Orawin T. Velz, Ph.D. V 0 euVs and Patrick W. Fleenor III he idea of using tax-deferred retirement savings for first-time home purchases has been around for several years among lawmakers. This year, liberalizing indi- vidual retirement accounts (IRAs) is back on the agendas of both Congress and the Bush Administration. For the second year in a row, the President has proposed to waive a penalty tax on early IRA withdrawal for first-time home purchases. In Congress, bills allowing the use of IRA contributions for down payment on a home have been reintroduced. While some people are convinced that some IRA-home-pur- chase bill will be passed this year, others are more pessimistic, saying that the new pay-as- you-go budget process would make it more diffi- cult for Congress to cut back existing programs to pay for a new venture. Restrictions on IRAs Currently, individuals who are not covered by any pension plans are allowed to deduct IRA contributions of up to $2,000 a year from their ordinary income, regardless of their income level. Accumulated interest income from an IRA is tax-deferred until the IRA funds are withdrawn. Upon retirement, all distributions of funds and earnings from an IRA are fully taxable as ordinary income. Although the prin- cipal and interest in IRAs are only tax-deferred and not tax-free, IRAs would benefit enrollees whose marginal tax rates are lower during retirement years than during working years when contributions are made. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced allow- able IRA deductions for higher-income taxpay- ers if the taxpayers or their spouses are covered by their employers' retirement plans. The lim- its on deductible contributions are gradually phased out between adjusted gross income (AGI) of $25,000 and $35,000 for single taxpay- ers, and between $40,000 and $50,000 for mar- ried couples. The phase-out ranges are not indexed for inflation, and therefore fewer tax- payers are eligible for the deductions each year. Dr. Velz is a tax economist, and Mr. Fleenor a research assistant, with the National Association of Realtors. Presently, IRA funds do not make a good substitute for saving for purposes other than retirement. If IRA holders withdraw the funds prior to reaching age 591/2, they are subject to a 10% penalty tax in addition to the regular fed- eral and state income taxes. For example, an individual who pays federal, state, and local taxes at a combined 35% rate would be left with only $550 from a $1,000 IRA withdrawal after paying the income tax and the 10% penalty tax. Tax Reform and IRAs. After the curtailment of IRA eligibility following tax reform, the rate of enrollment in IRA arrangements fell by about 40% in 1987. Two reasons can explain the sharp decline in IRA participation. First, IRA participation is commonly believed to be posi- tively related to marginal tax rates. Since the Tax Reform Act reduced the top marginal tax rate from 50% to 33% and thus reduced the benefit of deferring taxes, a decline in IRA par- ticipation was expected. Moreover, IRA deducibility was phased out for higher-income taxpayers and therefore further reduced the tax advantage of IRAs for those with incomes in the phase-out ranges and beyond. IRAs As an Incentive for Saving A major debate among economists about IRAs is whether IRAs create new saving or merely shift assets from taxable investments, such as money market mutual funds, into the tax-deferred IRAs. Some critics argue that IRAs are only an instrument to allow taxpayers to shuffle many of the assets in their portfolios into IRAs to defer paying taxes; thus IRAs do not significantly create new saving. For exam- ple, Alan Auerbach, professor of Economics at the University of Pennsylvania, commented that no clear evidence exists that IRAs signifi- cantly increased saving during the period 1981 to 1986. Other economists, however, present evidence that IRAs had a net positive effect on new sav- ings. Using a sophisticated "econometric" tech- nique, Steven Venti and David Wise estimated that for every dollar put in an IRA by an indi- vidual, most of it came from reduced consump- tion and reduced tax liability and less than 20 cents came from other taxable forms of saving. 30 Consumers' Research

This implies that the new saving induced by IRA incentives outweighed the tax loss to the government. Downpayment Constraint The premise for tapping IRAs for home pur- chase is that first-time homebuyers have a diffi- cult time saving for down payments. As evi- dence, proponents of using IRAs for home pur- chase point to the declining home ownership rate in the United States, which peaked in 1980 with 65.6% of households being homeowners, and fell to 63.9% in 1989. The decline, they argue, was even more dramatic among younger householders. The table on page 32 shows Bureau of the Census data for the home ownership rates for young householders up to the age of 34. For example, for those households in the 25-29 age group, 38.6% owned their own homes in 1982. By 1989, only 35.3% owned their homes. The same trend is evident for householders less than 25 years of age and for those between 30 to 34 years old, the age group most likely to be potential first-time homebuyers. Not everyone agrees that the decline in the homeownership rate was caused by difficulty of saving for a downpayment for young house- holds. Some analysts argue that homeowner- ship rates fell because households were simply making a rational investment and consumption choice. According to these analysts, as price appreciation slowed down and the tax benefits were reduced because of the drop in marginal , 0 -t V I I - 1 ~ tax rates, homeownership was viewed as less attractive than other types of investment. Therefore households may have preferred to rent rather than to own and to invest the potential down payment in other investment assets. The notion that young renters have a diffi- cult time saving for down payments is rein- forced by the 1986 Federal Reserve Board Survey of Consumer Finance. The survey repre- sents 11.1 million renter households between the ages of 25 and 34. In an analysis by Denise DiPasquale, 81.2% of those renters did not have the saving necessary to meet a 20% down pay- ment on the typical starter home while 64.3% of renters did not have the income to qualify for an 80% loan-to-value ratio mortgage. Only 11.5% of renter households had both the income and the savings that would be necessary to buy the typical starter home. Expanding IRAs Evidence exists that potential first-time homebuyers did not participate heavily in tax- deferred saving programs. According to the Survey of Income and Program Participation in 1984, only 10.3% of households under the age of 35 had IRAs and only 8.5% of renter house- holds had IRAs. The figures improve for young renters with higher income. Data from the 1983 and 1986 Surveys of Consumer Finances also revealed that, for renters age 25 to 34 earning at least $20,000, 20% had IRAs while 17.5% had 401(k) accounts. Therefore IRAs may appear to provide little benefit to potential first-time homebuyers directly and thus lead some critics to argue that allowing penalty-free withdrawal from IRAs is "of no value to people of the low- est income." .Others have a different view. They argue that the idea of using IRAs for home purchase is still beneficial to first-time homebuyers because IRAs could provide an incentive to potential homebuyers to start saving for a home by contributing to IRAs. To accommodate young renters who do not have IRAs, some IRA proposals would permit IRA holders to with- draw their contributions for their children and grandchildren as well as themselves. The President's Proposal. The President's bud- get proposal sent to Congress in February would permit qualified first-time homebuyers to withdraw up to $10,000 from their IRAs without penalty. The price of the home must be no more than 110% of the community's median price. Although homebuyers would not incur July 1991 31

. the 10% penalty on early withdrawals, they would stilll owe income taxes on the sum with- drawn. The President also proposed a saving pro- gram called the Family Savings Account. Taxpayers would be allowed non-deductible contributions of up to $2,500 annually. To qual- ify, a single person would have to earn less than $60,000 a year, $120,000 a year for a cou- ple. The earnings of these accounts are tax-free if the principal is left in the account for more than seven years. Proposals in Congress. Several bills allowing penalty-free withdrawal from IRAs to purchase homes for first-time homebuyers have been introduced in Congress this year. In the Senate, such bills have been introduced by Sen. Donald W. Riegle Jr. (D-Mich.), and Sen. Lloyd Bentsen (D-Tex.) and William V. Roth Jr. (R-Del.). On the House side, bills that would waive a penalty tax for early IRA withdrawal for a first-time home purchase have been introduced by Rep. Robert Matsui (D-Calif.) and Rep. Marge Roukema (R-N.J.). An identical bill to the Bent- sen-Roth bill has been introduced by Reps. J.J. Pickle (D-Tex.) and William Thomas (R-Calif.). The Bentsen-Roth "Super IRA" Plan. The Bentsen-Roth IRA bill intro- duced in March seems to have a better chance than any other IRA bill this year. The Bentsen-Roth bill is more elab- orate than other IRA bills cur- rently introduced in Congress. The bill would restore the tax deduction for IRAs; that is, the tax deduction would be extend- ed to all taxpayers, regardless penalty-free withdrawals of IRA contributions before retirement for the purpose of first-home purchase, education expenses, and catastrophic medical expenses. The medical expenses incurred by a taxpayer or a dependent must exceed 7.5% of the taxpayer's income in order to qualify for a waiver of the penalty tax. IRA holders are allowed to withdraw the funds for first-time home purchase and education expenses for their children or grandchildren as well. Taxpayers could opt to contribute up to $2,000 a year to either plan or a combination of the two. The $2,000 amount would be indexed for inflation, with a minimum $500 adjustment. Unlike other IRA bills, this bill would allow taxable but penalty-free withdrawals from other pension plans as well. For example, funds from 401(k) and 403(k) plans, which are tax- deferred savings arrangements sponsored by employers, could be withdrawn without penalty to be used for the same purposes allowed for IRA withdrawal. N Excerpted, with permission, from "Real Estate Outlook," a publication of the National Association of Realtors. Copyright © 1991 National Association of Realtors. Homeownership Rates 34 Years Old or Less, 1982-89 50-i of income or whether or not ( 40 -J they are covered by employers' retirement plans. The bill would also give indi- viduals an option to contribute into a new "back-loaded" or non-deductible IRA dubbed "Super IRA," which is similar to the President's tax-free Family Savings Account. The 30--~ contribution to the new I 10 -i account would not be deduct- ible, but withdrawals of IRA contributions and earnings are tax-free after assets have been held for five years. Under both the up-front and back-loaded plans, taxpayers would be permitted to make 1982 1983 1984 1985' 1986' 1987* 1988 ' 1989 Age 25 or less ~ Age 25-29 SOURCE: National Association of Realtors [ I Age 30-34 32 Consumers' Research

Smoke.. . . (Continued from page 15) logic studies consistently reveal only weak lung cancer risks for nonsmokers exposed to spousal smoking, with only six of the studies reaching statistical significance; 24 epidemiologic studies report no statistically significant effect for ETS exposure. Weak relative risks, however, do not exclude causal relationships. When the relative risks are weak it is very difficult to determine if the effect is artifactual or if it is real. Weak associa- tions are close in magnitude to a level of risk that is sometimes called "background noise," and at this level of risk there are variables other than the one studied that can influence the statistical association. When a series of epidemiologic studies reveals consistently weak associations that sometimes individually reach statistical signifi- cance and sometimes do not, all of the data can be pooled into a more comprehensive assess- ment to enhance the confidence of the assess- ment. This is called a "meta- analysis." There are specific rules, however, for combining data and not every published study lends itself to this kind of assessment. The National Research Council concluded, in 1986, that 13 of the then available studies met criteria that would permit a combined meta-analysis risk assessment. When the data from these 13 studies were com- bined, the net relative risk from all available studies was represented by a risk ratio of 1.34. The risk ratios as the result of other adjusted meta-analyses available for review vary from 1.08 to 1.42, with generally lower values derived from population studies in the United States and with somewhat higher levels of risk derived on populations outside of the United States. No matter how the data from all of the epi- demiological studies are manipulated, recalcu- lated, "cooked," or "massaged," the risk from exposure to spousal smoking and lung cancer remains weak. It may be 1.08 or it may be 1.34 or it may be 1.42, but all of those still represent a weak relative risk. No matter how these data are analyzed, no one has reported a strong risk relationship for exposure to spousal smoking and lung cancer. Combining all the data from all epidemiological studies does not result in an enhancement of the relative risk-the risk for lung cancer with exposure to spousal smoking is weak. In addressing this problem, Ernst Wynder, of "No matter how these [risk] data are analyzed, no one has reported a strong risk relation- ship for exposure to spousal smoking and lung cancer." the American Health Foundation, stated that when an assessment of relative risk is weak (that is, when the odds risk ratios are in the range of 2 to 1 or less) the possibility exists that the finding is artificial and a consequence of problems in the case control selection or is due to the presence of confounders (or con- founding variables) and interpretation biases which need to be carefully considered. Confounding variables must be controlled in order to obtain an undistorted estimate of the effect of a study factor, such as spousal smok- ing, on risk. This is especially true when the studied risk factor has a weak association. At least 20 confounding factors have been identified as important to the development of lung cancer. These include nutrition and dietary prevention, exposure to occupational carcinogens, exposure to various air pollution contaminants, genetic predisposition and fami- ly prevalence, circulating beta-carotene levels (as well as vitamin E and vitamin A levels), his- tory of alcohol consumption, exposure to alpha emitting radiation (such as radon daughters), geographical residence and country of origin, presence or absence of selenium and other trace metals, healthy versus unhealthy lifestyles, age, gender, housing conditions, race, marital status, ethnicity, socio-economic status, diag- nostic criteria, and perhaps most importantly of all, an enhanced clustering of risk factors. Thus, a large number of confounding variables are important to any consideration of spousal smoking and lung cancer, and no reported study comes anywhere close to controlling, or even mentioning, half of these. Is ETS a Health Hazard? Does exposure to the remnants or residual constituents of ETS represent a legitimate health hazard to the nonsmoker? In consider- ing spousal smoking, lung cancer, and the con- founding factors, Linda Koo, at the University of Hong Kong, cautioned that it may not be the hazards of tobacco smoke that are being evalu- ated, but a whole range of behaviors that result from having a smoking husband, which may, in July 1991 33

"Unfortunately, scientific data have not always been utilized objectively by governmental agencies or regulatory bodies that have their own inherent public health or political agenda." L turn, increase the risk for certain diseases among the wives and children. Indeed, con- founding variables are always present and they are so numerous and so complex that they may make it impossible ever to know the true risk for lung cancer in nonsmokers exposed to spousal smoking. Are the studies on the projections of levels of ETS residual constituents in our environment, and the studies on the spousal smoking and lung cancer, a reflection of "bad science?" Not necessarily, for they are the best science that is available today. Sir Bradford Hill of Oxford University cautioned years ago that it is impor- tant to remember that all science is subject to being reinterpreted or- to being changed and modified by advancing knowledge. As newer technologies are applied to the assessment of environmental tobacco smoke, clearer under- standings will evolve. Re~irints Available Passive Smoking: How Great A Hazard? Reprints of this special report are available for $2.00 each. Bulk rates: 10-99 copies, $1.80 apiece; 100-499 copies, $1.75 apiece; 500 or more, $1.50 apiece. Send check to: Consumers' Research 800 Maryland Ave., N.E. Washington, D.C. 20002 ATTN: Reprint Department Be sure to indicate how many copies of this reprint you want. Please allow four to six weeks for delivery. Has there been a "misrepresentation of sci- ence" in the common perception of ETS today? Active tobacco smoking and environmental tobacco smoke are controversial, very emotion- al, and highly politicized subjects. In the quag- mire of ETS forces operative in politics, emo- tion, and science, it has been difficult to sort out scientific fact from unsound conjecture. Unfortunately, scientific data have not always been utilized objectively by governmental agen- cies or regulatory bodies that have their own inherent public health or political agenda. Good science ultimately must rest on established proven scientific methods, and the full results generated by these scientific methods. When these methods are compromised, scientific integrity is lost and society pays the price. Interpretations and judgements may vary, as a function of an investigator's bias or to expedite one or another political, social or emotional objective. Richard Lindzen, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has emphasized that problems will arise where we will need to depend on scientific judgement, and by ruining our credibility now we leave society with a resource of some importance diminished. The implementation of public policies must be based on good science, to the degree that it is avail- able, and not on emotion or on political needs. Those who develop such policies must not stray from sound scientific investigations, based only on accepted scientific methodologies. Such has not always been the case with environmental tobacco smoke. ® Tires.... (Continued from page 19.) best just because they are made by a well- known manufacturer. As a matter of fact, most major tire manufacturers own and operate their own "private label" companies that pro- duce virtually the same product, but without the famous brand name. For you, the consumer, this is good news, because you can get a top-quality product while not having to pay big money for a brand name. Most of the "big guys" have subsidiaries with good deals that you can find out about, some- times by simply asking your tire dealer. You should ask questions about the tire, its manufacturer, warranty, etc.-and buy based on that knowledge as well as your tire profes- sional's recommendations. Most salespeople, remember, rely on happy repeat customers. ® 34 Consumers' Research

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A CR Symposium Science Behind Recent Regulations Questioned 1~ overnment regulatory policy and scien- tific research on many health and safety questions seem to be heading in opposite former senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, said there is an engineering trade- off between size and safety: at any given level of technology, a small car will be more fuel effi- cient but less safe than a large one. He added that increased prices of new cars stemming from forced technology changes cause con- sumers to keep their old cars longer, contribut- ing to emission and safety problems. If higher CAFE standards are enforced, Lave said, "it's not clear that you will decrease fuel consumption; it is clear that consumers won't like that they're getting, there will be less safe- ty and greater emissions." directions, according to a panel of experts at a Consumers' Research conference held in Washington, D.C., in May. Scientists speaking at the conference includ- ed experts in the fields of atmospheric pollu- tion, environmental tobacco smoke, pesticides, and automotive safety. The common theme emerging was that official regulations frequent- ly have little basis in scientific fact, being driv- en instead by politicaUsocial factors. According to Dr. S. Fred Singer, an atmo- spheric scientist and professor at the University of Virginia, "the tendency not only to misuse science but to ignore it is very strong" in policy decisions concerning "global warming," ozone depletion, and acid rain. Singer, who served in key scientific posts at the U.S. Department of Transportation and the Environmental Protection Agnecy, said com- puter models that predict huge increases in global temperatures "are not validated by the actual observations" of the temperature record. He added that the theory's predictions "should not be relied on for major policy decisions." Concerning the ozone layer, Singer said "you cannot conclude that there is a downward trend" based on current scientific evidence. He also said policy makers had ignored a $500 mil- lion, 10-year U.S. government study showing damage from acid rain to be relatively minor, forging ahead with stringent regulations. In like fashion, Dr. Gary Huber, professor of medicine at the University of Texas Health Science Center, said the "social movement" to ban environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) as an alleged hazard to non-smokers is largely unsup- ported by scientific data. (See related article beginning on page 10.) According to Dr. Lester Lave, an authority on automobile regulation, attempts to force cor- porate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards to 40 mpg, in the absence of petroleum price hikes, would be "an absolute disaster." Lave, professor of economics and engineering at Pittsburgh's Carnegie Mellon University and Dr. Gary Huber discusses passive smoking. In the area of food safety, Dr. Robert Scheuplein, head of the Food and Drug Ad- ministration's Office of Toxicology, noted that despite popular and media concern about pesti- cide residues on food, they pose an extremely small risk to food consumers. Of the total food- borne risk for disease, Scheuplein said, pesti- cides and additives fall at the bottom. More than 99% of the cancer risk in the human diet comes from carcinogens found nat- urally in foods or from food preparation, Scheuplein said. "There are lots of carcinogens in natural food if you take the time to look," Scheuplein added-many at levels thousands of times greater than pesticide residues. Accordingly, regulating or banning pesticides may do little to reduce food-related cancer rates if eating habits are overlooked, Scheuplein noted. "If we want to reduce risk from food, we should be looking at the diet," he said. (Addresses by panelists Singer, Lave, and Scheuplein at the symposium will appear in future issues of CR.) -John Merline, Peter Spencer July 1991 35

Product Notices T ome Wiring. The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has released its Guide to Home Wiring Hazards, a 35-page booklet written to help consumers find electrical dangers in their homes before they cause a fire or electrical shock. The booklet can also help avoid potential problems, according to the CPSC. To order the copy, send 50 cents to: Consumer Information Center, Dept. 477X, Pueblo, Colo. 81009. Gas Grill. The Thermos Company announced that it will replace the regulator and hose assembly on certain Thermos brand gas barbe- cue grills because of a possible fire hazard. The leaking regulators were part of a lot that may have been used to manufacture approximately 130,000 Thermos grills shipped to various loca- tions in the United States between January 24 and March 22, 1991. Grills involved have serial numbers ending in Al, B1, or C1. Consumers can find the serial number by checking the base of their grill near the wheels. Consumers with these grills should contact the Thermos Company at (800) 545-0432. A replacement reg- ulator and hose assembly will be shipped via overnight mail at no charge. Fire Extinguishers. Two models of American LaFrance fire extinguishers and one model of Beco fire extinguishers-which were manufac- tured from May 1985 through December 1985-are being recalled. The plastic valve and nozzle assembly on the three models could blow off in the threads connecting the nozzle assem- bly to the red cannister. The manufacturer, Badger-Powhatan, has received reports of 100 such explosion incidents. Approximately 84,000 American LaFrance and Beco extinguishers (models P-250MA and P-275RA) are being recalled. Consumers should return these extin- guishers to the nearest distributor. For the location of the nearest distributor, call Badger- Powhatan at (800) 922-3499. A free replace- ment extinguisher will be given in exchange for the recalled unit. Information for this article was provided by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. To report un- safe consumer products or a product-related injury, call the CPSC at (800) 638-2772. For information on recalls o f automobiles or child safety seats, call the Auto Safety Hotline at (800) 424-9393. Stair-Climber Exerciser. Dynamic Classics Ltd. is offering a free retrofit kit for its "Exer Climber" and "Promo-Stepper" exercisers. According to the manufacturer, 35,000 of the exercisers sold nationwide from April 1989 through December 1990 may break during use and result in seri- ous foot injuries. The exercisers are a stair- climber type device consisting of two springs, each attached to a black foot pedal and mount- ed to a metal A-frame. According to the CPSC, the spring can break and part of the spring can strike the user's foot, resulting in bruises, lac- erations, and fractures. More than 80 such injuries have been reported. Consumers should call Dynamic Classics at (800) 284-8492 to receive a free retrofit kit. Children's Laundry Hampers. The "Dirty Dunk" and "Dirty Dunk Jr." children's laundry ham- pers manufactured by Charlico Inc. may pre- sent a severe laceration hazard. Both of these products consist of a laundry basket attached to a backboard in the form of a basketball hoop and basket, which is mounted to an interior door with S-shaped hooks. The CPSC is aware of three incidents resulting from Dirty Dunks separating and falling from the S-shaped hooks. Approximately 120,000 Dirty Dunks with defec- tive (white-colored) S-shaped hooks were sold between June 1988 and March 1989, and about 20,000 Dirty Dunk Jrs. were sold with the defective hooks between June 1989 and December 1989. Because Charlico has recently gone out of business, the products are not being recalled. Consumers are advised to replace the white S-shaped hooks with stronger ones from a hardware store. Micro-Mini Motorhomes. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) announced that four manufacturers of micro- mini motorhomes are recalling approximately 10,000 motorhomes built between 1978 and 1986. All of these motorhomes were built on Toyota pickup truck chassis and are equipped with dual rear wheels installed by the motorhome manufacturers. The agency has received 406 reports of problems in the rear axles, which are overloaded and can result in failures of the wheel bearings or axle shaft and separation of the wheels from the vehicle. The manufacturers are National RV Inc., Coachmen Industries Inc., Gardner-Pacific Corp., and Leisure Odyssey Inc. The manufacturers will install a new rear axle purchased from Toyota that is capable of supporting the vehicle when it is operated normally. For more information about the recall, contact NHTSA's Auto Safety Hotline at (800) 424-9393. M 36 Consumers' Research

By Doc and Katy Abraham Q. We have a chance to use black walnut chips for a mulch. Are they harmful to plants? A. We continue to get many letters regarding black walnut trees. Will leaves from the tree hurt the garden soil? If you cut down a tree near your garden, will you ever be able to have a productive garden near the site? Will wood chips from a walnut stump or twigs have an effect on the crop? Are chips harmful? The answers: Walnut leaves and chips on the garden aren't apt to be toxic unless in large numbers. Your garden spot will be safe if the tree has been cut down. Wood chips break down and aren't apt to be a problem. Some pebple claim that walnut wood chips can be fatal if eaten by animals. That's why they shouldn't be used as bedding for horses or cows. As we've said before, the black walnut (Juglans nigra) is the most widely known example of an allelopath (al-lel-oh- path)-a plant that produces chemicals harmful to other plants. It's nothing new. Earliest accounts of its effects date to A.D. 37 when Pliny the Elder (Roman naturalist) recorded the tree's harmful effects on surrounding plants. Q. We made some raised beds out of railroad ties. The plants did pretty well until lately when the leaves of strawberries wilted and turned brown. Are the ties poisonous? A. Ties are treated with a black substance called creosote, which protects the wood from insects and fungi. Creosote deep inside the ties can bleed to the surface. But it does not move more than a few inches from the ties. It's the fumes (espe- cially on hot days) which injure the plants. We've seen vapors from some ties wilt strawberry plants and certain annuals within a couple of feet. Creosote comes from the distillation of coal into coke and will break down in time. So if you plan to make a raised bed, use ties at least 25 years old-from which the vapor has disappeared- or use the CCA-treated (chro- mated copper arsenate) land- scape timbers. This chemical is non-leachable and is perma- nently fixed in the wood. For more about treated landscape timbers, send CR a self-ad- dressed, stamped envelope for our free bulletin "Questions and Answers about Treated Timbers." Q. _My neighbor grew some ground cherries and they were delicious. Are they something new? I would like to grow some next year. I love them. A. You're talking about a minor crop called "Cape Gooseberry," "Goldenberry," or ground cherry. The fruit is another "kiwifruit" and has great potential. It makes a good preserve known as "poha," and the Europeans pay premium price for such ground cherries dipped in chocolate or as deco- rations on cakes and tortes. The Goldenberry has a wealth of yellow, marble-sized fruits on plants 24-inches tall. You'll like their flavor in pies and pre- serves. They can also be eaten raw in salads, stewed, fried, or made into a sauce for meats and desserts. It's too late to start plants now, but keep them in mind for next year. Q. I have a tree tomato that is four years old, and it has never produced a single tomato. How do you make them bear? A. We've often been asked about the tree tomato, which supposedly can be grown in- doors for "year 'round" har- vests. The ads say you can pick "basket after basket of ripe tomatoes...one bumper crop after another." Our neighbor has a tree tomato (Cyphoman- dra betacea) which is 10 feet tall and seven years old, and it has never produced a single bloom or fruit. It does make a good foliage plant. We'd like to hear from anyone who has ever fruit- ed the tree tomato. Q. I heard you can use gold- fish water for house plants. It gives them a boost. Does it? A. Many people use goldfish water for house plants. One reader tells us: "Each week when I change the water, I don't toss it out. About one- third of the water is siphoned off, as well as any decayed plant and animal matter. We have two five-gallon tanks, which will yield about four gallons of waste water. Most of this is used on our house plants. Extra tap water is added to bring the water level in the tank up to five gallons. The plants are thriving!" Address your questions to Doc and Katy Abraham, Consumers' Research magazine, 800 Maryland Ave., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002. July 1991 37

~ALUNG IALL onsumers_ A Drug Ads Question: What is the differ- ence between an advertisement for cigarettes and an ad for Nicorette, the cigarette-quitting gum? Answer: While a cigarette ad need only run a small warning of possible health risks, a Nicor- ette ad must run two pages of information in tiny type on pos- sible side effects and contraindi- cations. The result, of course, is that advertising tobacco products is far cheaper than promoting smoking cessation products. The Nicorette ad falls under federal regulations on prescrip- tion drug ads. These regula- tions require that any such ad be accompanied by a "brief summary" of the drug's possible side effects. These summaries often run two pages of type. The idea is to provide con- sumers who see these ads with as much information as possible about the drug before they go asking their doctor for it. However, the regulations may have the opposite effect. According to Dr. Paul Rubin, former senior advertising econ- omist with the Federal Trade Commission, the information "may be useful for physicians, for whom it was originally intended, but the lengthly statement is virtually worthless for most consumers because it is written in technical language and is probably read by only a very small number of them." In addition, the regulation reduces information conveyed by simple ads by effectively dou- bling or tripling the cost of advertising the products. The "brief summary" requirement also prevents brand-name pre- scription drug advertising on television, where such sum- maries cannot be conveyed. As a result, eliminating such requirements might have health benefits for consumers. Among these: more consumer awareness of possible treat- ments for health conditions and lower drug costs through increased competition for drug treatments. According to Rubin, writing in The American Enterprise: "There is evidence from many markets that increased advertising leads to lower prices." Critics of prescription drug ads argue that allowing more direct-to-consumer ads will induce consumers to take drugs they might not need, just because they saw a flashy ad on TV Proponents of drug ads point out that such drugs must still be prescribed by a physician, who should already be informed about the drug and its uses. Thus, as Rubin points out, "requiring a complex disclosure statement provides no benefits" to consumers. TMI and Cancer Scientists recently discovered an increased rate of cancer among those living near the Three Mile Island (TMI) nucle- ar power plant, which suffered a crippling accident back in 1979. The probable cause of the high cancer rates was not exces- sive radiation from the acci- dent, but stress from worrying about radiation exposure, according to the researchers. A report in the American Journal of Public Health found that stress resulting from the accident may have triggered "a small wave of excess cancers" in 1982 among people living with- in a 31/2-mile radius of the nuclear power plant. "We observed a modest post- accident increase in cancer near TMI that is unlikely to be explained by radiation expo- sure," said the researchers involved in the study. While the connection be- tween stress and cancer has not been proved, researchers theo- rized that it might have caused an "increased exposure to be- havioral risk factors, such as cigarette smoking." In 1980, CR reported on a con- gressional study of the TMI acci- dent, which concluded that "the greatest danger from the acci- dent was mental stress experi- enced by people in the vicinity of the nuclear plant." In addition, "press coverage contributed substantially to pub- lic misconceptions about the dangers of the accident and the risks of nuclear power in gener- al." At the time, for instance, the press was reporting on the possibility of a hydrogen explo- sion, which Dr. Bernard Cohen, professor of physics at the University of Pittsburgh, said was "physically impossible." Radiation levels in the area were also exaggerated. A President's Commission noted at the time that radiation levels around TMI after the accident were so small that there "will be no detectable additional cases of cancer...as a result of the accident at TMI." Fear of the accident, it appears, was a greater risk to residents living near TMI than the accident itself. - John W. Merline 38 Consumers' Research

VVhat te hcritics saylout ~ ~ MOVIES , 'Consumers' Research does not judge the films. The judg- ments and comments given here come from a sampling of movie reviews in newspapers and magazines, and on TV. They are compiled by the editors of Consumers' Research. Adult Entertainment Values Number of Critics Saying-GO ?? NO Ambition (R) ............................. 0 0 2 An overambitious writer tries to get into the mind of his killer/subject An Angel At My Table (PG-13) .............. 4 1 0 A woman, wrongly diagnosed as a schizophrenic, spends eight years in a mental institution Backdraft(R) ............................. 1 17 3 Drama centering on the lives of firefighters in Chicago; profanity, violence The Ballad of Sad Cafe (unrated) ........... 0 3 2 Story about unhappy love in a Deep South mill town; violence Blood in the Face (unrated) ................ 3 1 0 Documentary about the Nazis. KKK, etc., in America Chameleon Street (R) ..................... 1 3 1 Movie about an imposter who poses as a doctor, lawyer, and epileptic City Slickers (PG-13) ...................... 3 4 0 Three New Yorkers vacation in cowboy country Dice Rules (NC-17) ........................ 0 1 9 Concert film of an Andrew Dice Clay comedy show; excessive profanity Don't Tell Mom the Babysitter's Dead (PG-13) 0 1 4 Kids party when the babysitter dies Drop Dead Fred (PG-13) ................... 0 1 10 A woman's childhood imaginary friend comes to life Drowning by Numbers (R) ................. 1 1 4 Film about three related women, each of whom drowns her husband; violence, nudity, vulgar language FX2: The Deadly Art of Illusion (PG-13) ...... 2 2 5 Sequel to "FX;" about a special effects man who gets mixed up with criminals Hangin' with the Homeboys (R) ...... . ...... 2 4 I 0 Movie about the comic misadventures of four buddies from the South Bronx Hudson Hawk (R) ......................... 2 3 12 A cat burglar wants out of crime Impromptu (PG-13) ........................ 9 6 3 Film about George Sand, an early 19th Century female writer Journey of Hope (Switzerland) (unrated) .. . . . 2 12 2 A Turkish farmer moves to Switzerland Adult Entertainment Values Number of Critics Saying-GO ?? NO Jungle Fever(R) ....................... .. 3 4 0 A successful black architect has an affair with his white secretary The Killer (China) (unrated) ......... . ...... 1 3 1 Tale of a sentimental assassin set in contemporary Hong Kong Mannequin Two: On the Move (PG) .......... 0 2 3 A store mannequin comes to life Mister Johnson (PG-13) .................... 6 5 0 Drama set in colonial-era Africa, from the director of Driving Miss Daisy Mortal Thoughts (R) ....................... 8 10 3 Mystery about two New Jersey beauticians, one of whom kills her husband-or did she? One Good Cop (R) ........................ 0 12 8 A cop must take care of his partner's family after the partner is killed Only the Lonely (PG-13) ................... 1 12 5 Comedy about a domineering mother who attempts to break up her 37-year-old son's romance with a mortician Oscar(PG) ............................... 1 8 0 Sylvester Stallone takes on comedy as a gangster whose father's dying wish is that he give up crime A Rage in Harlem (R) ...................... 5 15 2 Drama set in motion with the theft of unrefined gold Rich Girl (R) .............................. 0 0 3 A rich girl tries to liberate herself from her domineering father Scenes from the Surreal (Czech) (unrated) ... 2 0 1 Claymation anthology Soapdish (PG-13) ......................... 4 3 3 Comedy about soap opera stars Stone Cold (R) ........................... 0 4 3 Cop/action drama starring former football player Brian Bosworth Sweet Talker (PG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . ..... 0 3 0 A con man falls in love with a local girl in a town he's been fleecing Switch (R) ............................... 1 8 13 A womanizer comes back to life as a women Tatie Danieiie (France) (unrated) .......... . . 2 2 0 Story about an 82-year-old curmudgeon Thelma and Louise (R) ............ . ....... 9 8 4 Two women kill a man and go on the lam; violence, profanity Truly, Madly, Deeply (Britian) (unrated) ...... 3 7 0 A woman tries to put her life together after the death of her lover Truth or Dare (R) .......................... 9 11 3 A'7ockumentary" about Madonna's 1990 concert tour What About Bob? (PG) .................... 2 16 1 Z-14 Comedy in which a psychiatric patient follows his doctor on vacation 0 Wild Hearts Can't Be Broken (G) 4 5 2 ........... . ~ True story of an orphaned teenager who joins a traveling stunt show W ZZ) GO-the film is entertaining, well worth seeing. ??-the film is flawed but rewarding. NO-the film is not recommended as entertainment. July 1991 39

CON S~Aie t Limiting Day Care Local zoning board authori- ties have a surprising amount of power to limit legitimate home occupations through zon- ing regulations. In Phillipsburg, New Jersey, for instance, a young mother, Patricia Land, was stopped from taking care of neighborhood children in her home. In July of last year, a zoning officer shut down her day-care activities. To get permission to begin operating again, Mrs. Land was forced through sever- al legal hoops. She applied for a zoning exemption that would allow her to re-open her day- care business, but the exemp- tion was denied. By January, the Zoning Board told all day-care providers in the town that they too would have to shut down. Concerned that the Zoning Board was hin- dering the ability of people to make a living, the Center for Individual Rights (CIR), based in Washington, D.C., undertook representation of Mrs. Land. CIR argued that the Zoning Board's decision was "complete- ly arbitrary." According to CIR executive director, Michael Greve: "They allow piano teach- ers and others to work out of their home, why not day-care providers?" The Zoning Board recently reversed itself and granted Mrs. Land an exemption from the home occupation prohibition. The board agreed with CIR's argument that, in practice, home occupations had been per- mitted and therefore it could not justify denying Mrs. Land's request. (See also "What You Should Know About Day Care," CR, August 1990.) Limiting Competition Local and state authorities also attempt to limit competi- tion by restricting licenses to competitors. Last fall in Rhode Island, the American Auto- mobile Association (AAA) of South Central New England was denied a Dealer's License after it began operating a car- buying service for AAA mem- bers. Dealers participating in the AAA program agreed to sell cars to AAA club members for no more than between 3% and 6% over the dealer's in- voice. When the AAA chapter re- quested a Dealer's License from the Rhode Island Motor Vehicle Dealers' Commission, however, the request was denied. Inter- estingly, 7 of the 11 members of the Dealers' Commission are car dealers themselves. The Commission's denial of the Dealer's License was over- turned by a Rhode Island Superior Court Judge at the end of last month. The Judge told the Commissioners that they were not to protect dealers from "healthy competition." (See also "It's Time to Ask: Who Needs a License?" CR, May 1991.) Stadium Costs Expensive local projects like stadiums continue to demon- strate how high-profile public works projects can financially strap localities and leave the taxpayer with the bill. The Commonwealth Foundation-a local public interest group out of Harrisburg, Penn.-found that financial data for 14 sports stadiums showed that only one-Dodgers Stadium in Los Angeles, which is privately owned-was profitable. The report shows that tax- payers have already lost $136 million on subsidies to stadiums and some stadiums cannot even By Scott Pattison earn enough to pay the operat- ing costs. Despite beating all Major League baseball atten- dance records, for example, Toronto's SkyDome stadium lost $18 million last year. Business Week magazine re- ports that losses will be as high this year as last, and will con- tinue to mount even if the SkyDome is booked every day of the year. Privatizing Public Works Local and state governments saddled with huge deficits are increasingly looking to privatize some public services. This is good news for both consumers and taxpayers. A survey by the Mercer Group, reported in The Wall Street Journal, recently found that localities which pri- vatize were extremely pleased with the results. Every locality surveyed had saved money by privatizing, and nearly half said that the service and quality had significantly improved. For example, a privatization board in Utah concluded that private companies' collecting trash would cost a city less than a publicly owned service and would actually provide in- creased revenue. A report just issued by the Reason Foundation-a public in- terest group in Santa Monica, Cal.if:-found that states and lo- calities are increasingly looking to privatize expensive services. The report suggested that California might consider priva- tizing its airports, among other things. Governor Pete Wilson supports contracting out and privatization as a partial solu- tion to California's huge budget deficit. Even in Massachusetts, Governor William Weld's propos- als to privatize more state ser- vices in order to downsize gov- ernment are being applauded. 40 Consumers' Research

Continued from page 7 The consumers' Observation Post DO NO HARM TO WHOM? An advocacy group called The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine recently proposed that the U.S. Department of Agriculture revamp its recommended "four food groups" to contain whole grains, vegetables, legumes, and fruits. No milk or meat products-even for pregnant women-were suggested because they "are simply not necessary in the human diet." The call for this strict vegetarianism for all Americans turns out to be less for human health-vegetarian diets are difficult to follow healthfully-than for animal welfare. A news report in the journal Science notes that the group is allied closely with animal rights activist organizations, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, and usual- ly works to protest animal testing in research. THE 1991 CONSUMER SELECTION GUIDE FOR ROOM AIR CONDITIONERS offers a quick reference for energy-efficiency ratings of all major room-sized air-conditioner and heat pump brands on the market. This most recent guide-published yearly by the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM)-presents a simple-to-follow, but thorough, work sheet for estimating the amount of cooling you need. Products are ranked, from best to worst, by ener- gy-efficiency ratings so you can choose the most energy-efficient product for your needs. (See also "What to Know About Air-Conditioners," CR, June 1991, and "Buyer's Guide to Room-Sized Heat Pumps," CR, August 1990.) For a copy of the guide, send $2.00 to AHAM, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill. 60606. SOME NONDAIRY PRODUCTS CONTAIN MILK INGREDIENTS that can cause reactions in people allergic to milk, according to a report in The New England Journal of Medicine. Researchers tested the brands of hot dogs, bologna, and tofu and rice desserts that patients reportedly said provoked allergic reactions. They found milk proteins in every case. The dessert products had been labeled nondairy or "pareve" (containing no meat or dairy), but had come from a dairy-processing facility, according to the report. The processed meats didn't list as ingredients the milk-derived sodium casseinate, which was used to improve the meat's texture. Future milk-reactions from meats may be lessened with new rules from the U.S. Department of Agriculture that require plant- and animal-derived additives to be placed on labels of meat and poultry products. But the current Food and Drug Adminstration rules, which cover nonmeat and dairy products, say that milk proteins and other "flavorings" do not have to be declared specifically on the label. (See "How Useful Are Food Standards?" page 26.) PHONE SCAM NOTICE: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) reports that peo- ple claiming to be with the FCC or the telephone company are asking consumers to accept long-distance, third-party charges as part of an investigation into unauthorized charges. Typically, the callers say a supervisor will charge long-distance calls to the number to check the line. False badge numbers and other phony information are sometimes provided for reas surance. Of course, when a legitimate operator calls later to verify the charge, an acceptance will turn out only to cover for the caller's free call to another state or country; the FCC or phone company would not investigate this way. July 1991 41

0 CUMULATIVE INDEX JULY 1990 THROUGH JUNE 1991 Entries shown in bold are longer, more comprehensive articles. Page Issue I Page Air bags, safety of ..... . . . . ... 10 Jan 91 Air conditioners .......... . ... 20 Jun 91 Air pollution: cleanup costs ...... . ........ 38 Nov 90 regulation .... . ............. 40 May 91 Airline: child safety seats ........... 20 Sep 90 fares, bargain ................ 2 Apr 91 investigations of ............. 4 Aug 90 Alar, publicity and consumer lessons ..........16 Feb 91 Alternative fuels ...... . . . ..... 21 Jul 90 Alzheimer's drug ............... 6 Jun 91 Animal tests ................. 4, 38 Dec 90 Antitrust laws ........... . ..... 40 Jun 91 Arts and craft safety .......... 35 Feb 91 Artwork: buying, selling ............. 24 Jul 90 reproductions .............. 30 Oct 90 Asbestos, health risks ........10 Jul 90 Automobiles: advertisements ...... . ...... 16 Sep 90 ' alarm laws ................. 40 Apr 91 CAFE standards ....23 Sep 90; 17 Apr 91; 6May91 dealer add-ons .............25 Feb 91 Detroit model review ........ 10 Nov 90 gasoline, saving ............23 Nov 90 Insurance costs ............ 31 May 91 leasing .....................2 Jun 91 mileage estimates . . . . . . . .. .15 Nov 90 quality survey .............. 12 Nov 90 safety ratings ..............25 Nov 90 safety vs. airlines ............ 38 Nov 90 tires ....................... 2 Sep 90 used cars, satisfaction survey ...........................19 Ju190 windshield repair ..... . ...... 2 Nov 90 winter driving tips ....... . . .31 Jan 91 Bank failures .............. ... 4 Sep 90 Banking: deposit insurance .......... 11 Mar 91 Interstate ..................22 Oct91 Bats, houses for .............. 2 Aug 90 Bicycles: buying ....................24 May 91 helmets .................... 2 May 91 Bottled water ................10 Jun 91 Cable TV: rates ......................38 Jun 91 reregulation ......... 4 Jul 90; 4 Nov 90; 4 Feb 91 CAFE standards .....23 Sep 90; 17 Apr 91; 6 May 91 Cancer, unproven remedies ..... 4 Oct 90 Charities, assessing ........ . .15 May 91 College, saving for ...........31 Dec 90 Composting, how to .......... 23 Apr 91 Consumer index .............. 2 Jan 91 Consumer Information . . . . . . . .22 Mar 91 Consumer pamphlets .......... 2 Aug 90 Consumers' Research: past issues .......... . . . .... 38 Oct 90 issue updates .... . . . ........ 38 Apr 91 Cookware .......... . . . . . . ... 20 Dec 90 Credit: cards, low rate .............. 2 Dec 90 counseling ........... ...... 2 Mar 91 Insurance ............. .....22 Sep 90 Day care ............ 21 Aug 90; 38 Feb 91 Drugs: experimental ................ 4 Alzheimer's .................. 6 high cost .............. •••.29 safety ..............•••••..38 substitution ................. 38 Dry-cleaning problems ......... 2 Dust mite control .............. 2 Education and money ........ .26 Electricity, health concerns ....24 Encyclopedias, buying ........ 28 Energy conservation: gasoline tax ................24 guide book ................. 2 hot water ..................19 Environment: Issue Page Issue Mar 91 Jun 91 Mar 91 Aug 90 Sep 90 Oct 90 Nov 90 Apr 91 Jan 91 Jul 90 Jun 91 Jan 91 Income: and inflation ............... 28 and taxes ..................23 Infomercials ........ ......._... 2 Insurance: long-term care .............25 temporary ............... ... 2 Lasers, for vision problems ....26 Lawyer monopoly ......... . . . .40 Licensing laws ............... 20 Lighting options ...... ...... .21 Medigap insurance rules ......34 Mothballs ........ . . .......... 17 Mar 91 Jan 91 Sep 90 un 91 Jun 91 Sep 90 Apr 91 May 91 Feb 91 Jan 91 Dec 90 Jan 91 Motion picture ratings .......... 39 Monthly and the consumer ..11 Sep 90; 38 Dec 90 myths about ................ 38 Mar 91 protection costs ........ . . . . .40 Apr 91 Farm programs ......10 Aug 90; 38 Fab 91 Federal regulations increase ....38 Jan 91 Food: copper connections .......... 8 Jan 91 edible packaging .......... .. 8 Nov 90 foodborne disease ........... 8 May 91 genetic engineering .......... 8 Feb 91 health claims ........ . . . . . . .10 May 91 health disorders, food-related .. 8 Sep 90 high cost of ................ 10 Aug 90 labeling ............. 8 Jul 90; 29 Apr 91 new types .................27 Oct 90 oatrim ......... ..•.•••••.•••8 Jun 91 organic ................... 38 Ju190 oxalates ............. . . . ... 8 Mar 91 phytates ................... 8 Apr 91 plastic packaging ........... . 8 Aug 90 safe handling & storage .....29 Jun 91 seafood safety .............34 Jun 91 soup, sodium & fat in ...... 26 Mar 91 sucralose ...... . ........... 8 Oct 90 Food and Drug Administration: approvalprocess ...........31 Apr 91 free-market alternative ...... 26 Jul 90 Frequent-flyer programs ....... 23 Jui 90 Funerairule .................. 2 Feb 91 Garden: Q&A ............. ....37 Monthly Gasoline: conservation ...............23 Nov 90 high octane ................35 Mar 91 prices .................... 10, 12 Oct 90 saving devices .............. 2 Dec 90 tax ........................24 Jun 91 Gripe book ......... . ......... 2 May 91 Gums, care for ................ 2 Feb 91 Health care crisis: rationing .......... 28 Dec 90; 40 May 91 reform .....................40 Jun 91 Heat pumps, room-size ........ 15 Aug 90 High definition television ....... 4 Jan 91 Highways: 1990 appropriations bill ....... 6 Apr 91 Improving .................11 Feb 91 Home: alternative cleaners .......... 2 Nov 90 electrical safety ...... . .... .27 fire prevention ............. 10 hot water energy savings .... 19 lighting options ....... . . . . .21 poison proofing ............32 title insurance ............... 2 Hospital charges .............31 Aug 90 Dec 90 Jan 91 Feb 91 Oct 90 Jul 90 Sep 90 Mouthwashes, less-expensive ..29 Feb 91 Mutual funds ................. 15 Oct 90 Nutrition labeling ............. 29 Apr 91 Ocean pollution ... . ........... 38 May 91 Oil prices, economics behind ..10 Oct 90 Oil spills and environment .....14 Jan 91 Paint: and mercury ................ 2 Jan 91 lead-based .................32 Mar 91 Penny stocks, new rules ......30 Nov 90 Pesticides: Atar .......................16 Feb 91 and food costs .............33 Nov 90 Pets, and diseases ........... 31 Aug 90 Poison prevention ............ 32 Oct 90 Postal service, private model ..34 Sep 90 Price increases, hidden ......21, 38 Apr 91 Product recalls ......35 Aug 90; 35 Oct 90; 36 Nov 90; 36 Dec 90; 40 Jan 91; 35 Apr 91; 36 May 91; 36 Jun 91 Product tampering ......... . . .34 May 91 Products, and environment ....11 Sep 90 Radon: danger ....................10 Apr91 detectors ..................15 Apr91 Recorded music reviews ....... .43 Monthly Recycling ................... 17 Mar 91 Refund rights ................ 28 May 91 Regulations rise ............... 38 Jan 91 Rent-to-own contracts ........ 19 Aug 90 Retirement communities ........ 2 Mar 91 Risks, misunderstood .......... 38 Aug 90 Supergiue ..................32 Nov 90 Tanning pills, health risks .....29 Jan 91 Taxes: growing burden ............16 Jun 91 last minute help ............. 2 Apr 91 new law .......... . . ....... 25 Dec 90 state tax burden ...19 Oct 90; 38 Dec 90; 32 Feb 91; 40 Jun 91 tax preparers ............... 20 Mar 91 Teeth whiteners, safety ....... 27 Feb 91 Telephone, long-distance ....... 2 Jul 90 Toys, chasing safe ......... . .15 Dec 90 Windows, new developments ..33 Jul 90 Windshield repair ............. 2 Nov 90 Winter driving tips .......... . .31 Jan 91 Wood stoves: safety ..................... 2 Oct 90 use restrictions ............. 40 May 91 For subscription rates and prices of single copies and back issues of Consumers' Research magazine, see page 6. Consumers' Research is available on 35 mm positive microfilm from University Microfilms Inc., 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106. For a braille edition, call or write Regional Libraries for the Blind. Consumers' Research is indexed in Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature and in the quarterly compilation of Consumers' Index, Pierian Press, Box 1808, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106. 42 Consumers' Research

Recorded Music in Review by Walter F. Grueninger Bach: Motets (BMV 225-230). Augsburger Domsingknaben under Reinhard Kammler. Deutsche Har- monia Mundi Cassette 77031 4 RC. Distributed by RCA. The motet, oldest compositional genre of European poly- phonic art music, was sung by the choir in the worship service. The words were taken from Scripture. The boy's choir gives us a satisfying, revelatory perfor- mance of Bach's glorious music. Clear, excellent recording. AA AA Belcanto Domingo. Tenor with Orchester der Deutsche Oper Berlin under Nello Santi. Musical Heritage Society, 1710 Highway 35, Ocean, N.J. 07712. Recorded in 1968 when Placido Domingo was 27 years of age, we hear bravado singing (at times off pitch) with marvelous orchestral support-50 min- utes of arias from Aida, Cavalleria Rusticana, La Gioconda, Il Trovatore, Turandot, and six more Italian operas. Very well recorded. P.S.: This year Domingo conducted the opera Tosca at the Metropolitan Opera and other operas elsewhere. A AA Encore. Heinrich Schiff (cello). Samuel Sanders (piano). Philips CD 420 945 2. Eighteen popular encore pieces intelli- gently chosen; eloquently, authoritatively played; and well recorded. Included are Tchaikovsky's Valse Sentimentale, Saint Saens' The Swan, Kreisler's Liebesleid, Prokofiev's March for Children, and Joplin's Original Rag No. 1. AA AA Gretschaninoff: Sonata for Cello and Piano (op. 13); Nocturne (op. 86); Fantasia; and Faure: Sonata for Cello and Piano (op. 109). Warner Thomas (cello) and Carmen Piazzini (piano). Calig CD 5088. Distributed by Koch International Corp. Alexander Gretschaninoff was a prolific, competent, Russian composer who became a U.S. citizen late in life. He died at age 91. He wrote vocal music mostly, though he did write this and one other sonata for cello and piano. The gentle, melodic sonata played here may not represent his best work, but it char- acterizes the man. The Nocturne and Fantasia I found enjoyable, full of life and "atmosphere." Gabriel Faure, com- poser in the French style, wrote two sonatas for cello and piano, also. This is his first. It's a gloomy, traditional piece. The players stand up to all of this music superbly-technically, emotionally. Good recording. AA AA Holst: Suite No. 1; A Moorside Suite; Suite No. 2; Hammersmith: Prelude and Scherzo. Dallas Wind Symphony under Howard Dunn. Reference Recording RR 39CD. Recorded by 50 professionals, a San Francisco-based company presents works by British composer Gustav Hoist in the instrumentation he speci- fied. Some fine moments here which fans of earnest music for band instru- ments may enjoy. Smooth recording. AA AA Hungarian Gypsy Music. Sandor Lakatos and His Gypsy Band. Quintana CD 903009. Distributed by Harmonia Mundi USA. Recorded in Budapest 1990, top professionals featuring violin, clarinet, and cello play 29 selections ranging in emotion from despair to delight. Outstanding. Play gypsy, play. Magnificent studio recording. AA AA Karl Holler Organ Music. Fan- tasie for Violin and Organ, Triptychon for Organ, Improvisationen for Cello und Organ. Barbara Harbach, William Preucil, Roy Christersen. Gasparo GSCD 278. Contemporary German com- poser Ho11er, strongly based in tradi- tional methods, certainly attracts atten- tion with this disc. Foremost in his Fantasie for Violin and Organ. It's an exciting work marvelously played by Preucil (first violinist of the Cleveland quartet) and Harbach (who tours exten- sively as concert organist). It was recorded at the First Church of Christ, Scientist in Buffalo, N.Y. The two remaining pieces, though less absorb- ing, increase our appreciation of this composer and the performers. We bow to the excellent balance and wide range recording of this "serious" contempo- rary organ recital music. AA AA Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 13 (K 415) and No. 9 (K 371). Andras Schiff (piano) with the Camerata Academica des Mozarteums Salzburg under Sandor Vegh. London CD 425 466 2. A worthy disc. Dazzling writing in no. 13 but you may say that, too, about no. 9, excepting that the contrasting Andantino expresses sorrow. One finds it easy to praise a tidy, finely phrased performance by Schiff who gets careful- ly controlled support from the orches- tra. Reproduction is clean, commend- ably balanced. AA AA Poulenc: Piano -Music. Pascal Roge (piano). London CD 425 862 2. Francis Poulenc (1899-1963) was a member of the French composers group "Les Six." In recital he accompanied distinguished friends on the piano but mainly he composed sparkling music. Here are 22 of his short, charming, melodic solo pieces: Humoresque, Intermezzi, Improvisations, Villageoises, etc. Fortu- nately, Roge plays them without excessive, impassioned richness. Cool. Beautifully recorded. AA AA Tchaikovsky: Serenade for Strings; Grieg: Holberg Suite, etc. Moscow Soloists under Yuri Bashmet. RCA Victor Red Seal CD 60358 2 RC. Tchaikovsky's famous four-movement Serenade gets a warm, graceful, expres- sive performance. Grieg's five move- ment Holberg Suite and the two Norwegian Dances are played with pre- cision. Bright sound tops off a CD likely to give much pleasure to listeners who enjoy melodious string orchestra music. AA AA The Copland Collection: Orches- tra and Ballet Works 1936-1948 Conducted By the Composer. Sony Classical SM3K 46559. Three CDs. The discs present the "dean of American composers" conducting his most popular orchestra compositions. (What would we give to hear recordings of Beethoven conducting his works?) Included are Rodeo, El Salon Mexico, Billy the Kid Suite, Quiet City, Our Town, Fanfare for the Common Man, Music for Movies, Appalachian Spring, Concerto for Clarinet and much more. Performers are New Philharmonic Orchestra, London Symphony, New England Conservatory Chorus, Benny Goodman, Henry Fonda, et al. This is previously released materi- al remixed for compact disc. Vivid sound. Wide dynamics. Some harsh high frequencies in loud passages. The music, which is characteristically attractive, combines strong rhythmic pulse with lovely lyrical passages. Philip Ramey and Sony provide informative program notes. By way of example, they tell us the orchestral portion of Lincoln Portrait was recorded in London October 26, 1968, but the narration was recorded in New York City June 7, 1971. AA A How CR Rates Recordings Ratings (AA,A,B) apply first to quality of interpretation, second to the fidelity of recording. The interpretation rating applies to Long Play records (LP), Compact Discs (CD), Tape Cassettes. The fidelity rating applies only to the format heard: LP, CD, Cassettes. (Generally the performance is available on the three formats.) Space lim- its comment to highly rated recordings for it is the view of Consumers' Research that readers are most interested in recordings judged to be superior. July 1991 43

The Best of CR Reprinted Classic articles on finance, products, services, and more, reprinted from past issues of CR. - -------------------------------------------------------, Title: No. of Copies: Title: No. of Copies: Title: No. of Copies: The Trouble With The Capital Gains The Greenhouse Airbags (January 1991) Tax Cut Effect: Science Can Consumers (November 1989) Fiction? Save the Environment? Trade Protectionism: (November 1988) (September 1990) The Consumer Pays The Real Cause of Collision Damage (August 1989) Airport Congestion Waivers: Are They Why Your Phone (May 1988) Worth It? (June 1990) Rates Are So High Privatizing the Post How to Get Better (June 1989) Office (March 1988) Cable TV At Lower Does Everything How the Free Prices (May 1990) Cause Cancer? Market Benefits How Clean is the (May 1989) Consumers Air We Breathe? The Savings and (February 1988) (March 1990) Loan Crisis (May and Marijuana and Are Lotteries a Rip-Off? December 1989) Cocaine (January 1990) Cost of Regulations (Special Report) What's Wrong With on Public Fuel Economy Generic Drugs? Transportation Standards and Auto (December 1989) (February 1989) Safety (Several Issues) Others Available: Prepaid Legal Plans (July 1989) ; High Blood Bressure: Causes, Cures, and Monitoring (Several Issues) ; A Guide to Water Purifiers (July 1988) ; Should You Invest in an IRA? (July 1988) ; Assessing Investment Risk (November 1988) _; How to Pick Good Stocks (March 1989) _; Caffeine: Villain or Victim? (March 1988) _; A College Financial Aid Primer (April 1987) _; The High Cost of Credit (September 1986) ; Car Maintenance (July 1989) ; Gardening Myths Debunked (October 1988) ; Growing Herbs at Home (June 1989) _; Homemade Garden Aids (June 1988) _; Choosing an Auto Repair Shop (December 1988) ; Comparing Various Heating Fuel Costs (December 1989) _ Reprints are $2. 00 per single copy (postage and handling included). * To order, simply mail this form with a check or money order to: Consumers' Research Reprint Department 800 Maryland Ave., N.E. Washington, D.C. 20002 Amount Enclosed: $ Name Address City State Zip *Quantity orders: 10-99 copies, $1.80 apiece; 100-499 copies, $1.75 apiece; 500 or more copies, $1.50 apiece. Please add $1 per hundred for postage and handling. Purchase orders will be accepted for orders of 100 or more. Please allow four to six weeks for delivery. L------------------------------------------------------- J