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EDUCATION, AND WELFARE. Health Aspects of Smoking in Transportation Aircraft U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, December fl&MAiES AND TABLES FOR CHAPTER 6 I ~ ~ 7 7 (p C 00 N CD G7

I FIGURES AND TABLES, CHAPTER 6 ~ 78 .I m O m tJ CD cn

mainstream smoke. A ratio of greater than 1.0 means the constituent is found in higher concentrations in sidestream smoke than mainstream smoke. A number of the constituents listed are carcinogens or suspected carcinogens according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer. I Measurement of ETS The large number of constituents in ETS make it impossible to assess overall exposure based on measurement of each one. Instead most researchers have measured one or more compounds and have used those to estimate the total exposure to ETS. Changes in ETS composition over time and exposure conditions limit the accuracy of this method. This chapter will discuss in detail only a few of the possible measures of ETS: particles, nicotine, cadmium and nitrosamine. Most of the data presented will be from studies involving cigarette smoke since this is a major source of indoor ETS. Little work has been done on pipe or cigar smoke. Exposures to Environmental Tobacco Smoke According to the U.S. Department of Commerce (1985) about 30% of adults in the U.S. are smokers. 404 of homes nationwide have at least one smoker. In a survey of over 10,000 children in six U.S. cities, the percentage of children living with one or more smoking adults varied from a low of 604 to a high of 75% (Ferris et al,. 1979). Lebowitz and Burrows (1976) reported 544 of children in a study in Tucson had at least one smoker in the home. These data indicate that the potential for exposure to ETS in the home is greater than that inferred from national statistics. Smoking between different demographic groups can vary widely and this will modify the exposure of nonsmokers to ETS. Overall ETS exposure will depend on the proximity of an individual to the source of smoke. Patterns of smoking will be influenced by time, location and type of activity. MICROENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS OF CONCENTRATIONS Concentrations of Particles and ETS Numerous studies have been conducted using respirable suspended particulates (RSP) as markers for ETS. Both continuous and integrated measurements methods have been used. Although RSP is not specific for the presence of smokers in the home and other indoor locations, the.number of cigarettes smoked have shown to correlate well with RSP. Particulate Concentrations in Homes m 68 GD O m N ~ ~

ae. es. in he:1b. p. Wr iw Jr /y 7o.0a ~ . Da J.n i.e. Yr- y. 1.H Nn nn FIGURE 3. Monthly Mean Mass Respirable Particulate Concentrations (µg/m') Across Siz Cities Source: Spengler at al. (1981)

FIGURE 4. Aerosol Mass Concentration in R & D Office Source: Quant at a1. (1982)

the lungs. Particles greater than 2.5 um in diameter, or coarse particles, are usually formed by mechanical processes like grinding, crushing and abrasion. At least 75% of the silicon, calcium and iron, elements commonly found in soil, appear in this size fraction (Dzubay and Stevens, 1975). Particles from 2.5-10 um can be inhaled and can become deposited in the tracheobronchial regions. Environmental Tobacco Smoke Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is a mixture of exhaled mainstream smoke and sidestream.smoke. Sidestream smoke is the smoke that is formed by smoldering between puffs, of a tobacco product and is the major source of ETS. The complex mixture that the smoker inhales with each puff of a cigarette, cigar or pipe is called mainstream smoke. The portion of mainstream smoke that the smoker inhales with each puff of a cigarette, cigar, or pipe is called mainstream smoke. The portion of mainstream smoke that the smoker exhales and the small amount of vapor diffusing through the wrapping of the cigar or cigarette add little to ETS. ETS consists of fresh and aged sidestream and mainstream smoke. The particle sizes which make up ETS vary due to coagulation (the process where two or more particles collide and combine to form a larger particle), evaporation, and the adhesion of particles to surfaces. The size distribution of particles is also affected by air dilution, relative humidity and temperature. Under controlled conditions, several researchers have measured the particle size distribution of sidestream smoke (Keith and Derrick, 1960; Porstendorger and Schraub, 1972; Hiller et al., 1982: Leaderer et al., 1984, Ingebrethsen and Sears, 1986). Based on these studies, the mass median diameter of sidestream smoke can be estimated to be between 0.2 um and 0.4 um. The mass median diameter is the diameter which divides the mass distribution in half, ie: one half of the mass is contributed by particles larger than this diameter and one half by particles smaller. Composition of ETS Environmental tobacco smoke is made up of several thousand different chemical compounds. These compounds may be in the gaseous or solid phase or both. The chemical composition of sidestream smoke differs from that of mainstream smoke. Over 2,000 compounds have been measured in sidestream and mainstream smoke. Some of the constituents in the mainstream smoke of nonfilter cigarettes are listed in Table 3. Also given are ratios of these substances in sidestream smoke compared to 67

b 30 A 10 0 0 0 14 it 14 m w.a..en FIGURE 1. -Time Location Patterns for 46 Infanta Source: Harlos et al. (1987) m 20 n 24 ~ ~ m O m t~., 0

et al. (1987). The rest of their time is usually spent in the livingroom, kitchen or in travel as illustrated in Figure 1. There are some problems with determining total exposure based on time-activity patterns. It is not clear how well individual activity allocation can be generalized from overall population estimates or how concentration levels are affected by varying time and activity patterns. There also may be differences between rooms within microenvironments but this is not well understood. Lebret (1985) examined the respirable suspended particulate (RSP) levels in rooms while participants were smoking or within one half hour of smoking. He found significant variation between the livingroom kitchen and bedroom. Ju and Spengler (1981), who studied 24-hour average concentrations of respirable particulates, also found statistically significant variation between some rooms although the absolute differences were relatively small. Monitoring There are a number of different instruments available to monitor air pollutants. Often the type of instrument used depends on the exposure of interest. Immediate exposures are most important when studying irritant and acute allergic responses. For this type of exposure, instruments which take short term or instantaneous readings are often used: the piezobalance or nephelometer are both used to measure particulates, the ecolyzer is used to measure carbon monoxide. One advantage to these types of instruments is their ability to detect peak pollutant levels. . For acute effects such a upper or lower respiratory infections, the exposures of interest range from hours to days. For increased prevalence of even a lifetime. To measure these exposures, integrated or time-averaging methods are used. These methods include filters which are used to collect particles over long time periods. EXPOSURE TO AIRBORNE PARTICLES Size Distribution and Composition of Particulates The distribution of particulates is essentially trimodal with peak diameters at approximately 0.02 um, 0.5 um and 10 um as shown in Figure 2. The fine particle fraction, or <2.5 um, is produced by condensation. At least 75% of the sulfur, zinc, bromide and lead are found in this size range (Dzubay and Stevens, 1975). Particles <2.5 um are very important for health reasons since these particles can reach the alveolar regions on 66

et al. (1987) considered cadmium as a useful tracer for ETS. They monitored twenty homes and one outdoor site for fine particulates in Watertown, MA. Particles were analyzed for elemental composition using x-ray fluorescence. At the outdoor site and in homes without smokers, cadmium levels were below the detectable limit. Indoor cadmium levels were below the detectable limit. Indoor cadmium levels were highly correlated with indoor fine particulate measurements. Nitrosamines, some of which have been listed as animal carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cencer, have been studied in public facilities and homes (Brunnemann et al., 1978). Using continuous measurements they found mean levels of nitrosamines in public facilities which ranged from 0.01 to 0.24 ng/L. Both homes monitored had levels of less than 0.0005 ng/L. Wallace et al. (1987) measured the personal exposure and breath levels of benzene and other aromatics in 200 smokers and 322 nonsmokers in New Jersey and California. Benzene is listed as a human carcinogen by the IARC (1986). They found a significant increase in breath concentration with the number of cigarettes smoked. Smokers were found to have up to 10 times the breath concentration of benzene compared to nonsmokers. Nonsmokers who reported smoke exposure at work showed elevated levels for fall and winter but not for spring and summer. The authors concluded that cigarettes were the major source of benzene for about 50 million U.S. smokers. No single constituent of ETS is sufficient to completely characterize an individuals exposure to ETS. Research on ways to relate these measurements to specific health effects continues to be done. The most prudent course is to measure several of these components in exposure studies. Markers specific to the class of ETS components, or health outcome of interest could be utilized in epidemiologic studies to enhance precision of the exposure. Personal Exposures. Personal monitoring studies have many of the same problems that area monitoring has such as trying to measure ETS exposure based on one or more markers. However, personal exposure monitoring has the advantage of including spatial and temporal dimensions to the measurements. It is also possible to use time activity diaries to link exposure with location and activity. The results of a personal monitoring study by McCarthy et al. (1987) show that the exposure of children to RSP was much higher than that of children from nonsmoking households. The average personal RSP value increased from 29 µg/m3 for children from nonsmoking families to 56 µg/m3 for children from smoking families. The average personal nicotine concentration increased 71

CHAPTER 6 EXPOSURES TO AIR POLLUTANTS John McCarthy, Elizabeth Miesner, John Spengler Harvard School of Public Health Boston, Massachusetts I Microenvironments Concentrations of air pollutants can and do vary depending on location. outdoor pollutant levels may differ from indoor levels. Different indoor locations like homes, schools or workplace can also register varying pollutant levels. An individual's total exposure to air pollutants therefore depends on the time spent in each of these microenvironments and the various concentrations of air pollutants. Time Activity Patterns The amount of time a person spends in different microenvironments is influenced by age, sex, occupation, social class and season. Letz et al. (1984) studied the time-activity patterns of 332 residents of Roane county, Tennessee. The results of study showed that these individuals spent 75% of their time in the home. This was higher (84.9%) for housewives, unemployed and retired persons. The group.spent 10.8% of the time at work with occupational groups working between 21-24% of their time. Of the remaining time: 8.5% was spent in public places, 9% in travel and 2.8% in various other locations. Quakenboss et al. (1982) studied the time allocation for 66 family members from 19 homes in Portage, WI. Individuals were put into one of five general subgroups which are shown in Table 1. Despite wide variations, each group spent most of the time at home. For all participants. total time spent indoors was 853. More recently, Quakenboss and his colleagues analyzed time activity data for over 300 individuals in the Portage, WI area. Participants were categorized into three groups: workers, nonworkers, and students. Activity data were collected from both summer and winter seasons and are summarized in Table 2. Again all groups spent the largest percentage of their time in the home. Time spent outdoors decreased from summer to winter. Infants, because they are essentially immobile, spend most of their time in the bedroom according to a recent study by Harlos 65

Miesner et al. (1988) used both continuous and integrated methods to monitor in five office buildings in metropolitan Boston. Both filters and nephelometer were used to measure in 12 offices, one conference room and a designated smoking room of a large nonsmoking office to 1200 µg/m3 in the designated smoking room. Short-term nephelometer readings ranged from zero in a nonsmoking office to 1200 pg/m3 in the same smoking room mentioned above. Particulate Concentration in Offices Repace and Lowry (1980) measured particulate levels in various indoor public facilities both in the absence and presence of smoking. For nonsmoking locations such as restaurants, libraries, a church, and a bakery, the mean indoor RSP level was less than 60 µg/m3. Measurements taken in public facilities in the presence of smoking are shown on Table 5. Measurements range from 86µg/m3 for an eight minute measurement in a sandwich restaurant by other researchers using continuous monitoring methods to measure particulate levels in public facilities are presented in Table 6. Besides monitoring in offices, Miesner et al. (1988) also took continuous and integrated RSP measurements in numerous public facilities including: a library, museum, school, subway, bars and restaurants. They found that for most public buildings where no smoking was present the particulate levels were low, usually less than 30 µg/m3. Levels in transportation facilities such as the subway and bus stations were slightly higher with a mean integrated measurement of 63 µg/m3. Higher concentrations were found in smoking areas such as bars, restaurants and a public smoking room with a mean integrated measurement of 79 µg/m3 and a standard deviation of 44 µg/m3. Concentration of Other Components of ETS Numerous researchers have looked at other tracers for ETS. Because of its high specificity for tobacco smoke and its presence in high concentration nicotine is a promising choice. McCarthy et al. (1987) also measured indoor nicotine levels in smoking and nonsmoking homes. The home nicotine values ranged from an average of 0.1 µg/m3 in the nonsmoking households to 4.2 µg/m3 in the smoking households. The presence of low nicotine values in some of the nonsmoking households can be accounted for by visitors to the home who were smokers. A number of studies have used integrated readings to determine nicotine levels in offices and public buildings. A selection of these studies are presented in Table 7. Cigarettes are also known to be a source of cadmium. Lebret 70

Spengler et al. (1981) measured 24-hour respirable particulate levels in 55 homes in six U.S. cities. The mean monthly concentration across cities is presented in Figure 3 with indoor particulate levels are similar to the outdoor levels. Table 4 shows the respirable particulate levels in the homes as a function of the number of smokers. The actual amount of smoking in the home was not reported. The researchers concluded that the major source of indoor particulates in smoking homes was cigarette smoke. Each smoker in the home raised the mean respirable particulate level by 20 µg/m3. Further analysis of the data by Dockery and Spengler (1981) showed that each cigarette smoked in the home increased the mean respirable particulate levels by 0.88 µg/m3. In air conditioned homes, the respirable particulate levels increased by 2.11 gg/m3 per cigarette per day. This increase was probably caused by recirculation of indoor air which reduced the cigarette smoke dilution. , _, . . More recently Spengler and colleagues (1986) analyzed RSP data from over 200 homes in Watertown, MA. Homes with smokers had RSP concentrations of 30 to 35 gg/m3 higher than nonsmoking homes. RSP concentration and the number of cigarettes smoked per week were highly correlated. Models based on this data predict a contribution of 0.77 µg/m3 per cigarette per day. This would mean a pack of cigarettes would increase the indoor RSP concentration by 15.5 µg/m3. McCarthy et al. (1987) placed fixed monitors in homes for two consecutive 24 hour sampling periods. The RSP measurement was highly correlated with the consumption of cigarettes in the home. The indoor RSP values for smoking households were consistently higher than those for nonsmoking homes to 56 gg/m3 in smoking homes. Particulate Concentration in Offices Using a piezobalance, Weber and Fischer (1980) monitored 44 workrooms at seven different companies in Switzerland. The workrooms had varying levels of smoking. A number of samples were taken in each room over a two day period. After subtracting the particulate levels found in an unoccupied room, the mean particulate level for the 492 samples taken was 133 µg/m3 with a standard deviation of 130 µg/m3. The maximum concentration measured was 962 µg/m3. Quant et al. (1982) used a piezobalance, to monitor three offices. The offices were divided into cubicles with half-wall partitions and contained both smoking and nonsmoking areas. offices were monitored continuously for one work week. Figure 4 shows the results of continuous monitoring in one of the offices. For the three offices, the ten hour day averages ranged from 37µg/m3 to 89 µg/m3. 69

from 0,3 µg/m3 to 2.5µg/m3 for children_from nonsmoking and smoking families respectively. A child's personal nicotine is highly correlated with the consumption of cigarettes in the home while the personal RSP was not. This implies that although there are multiple sources of RSP, the majority of ETS exposure is from the child's home. I Spengler et al. (1985) had 101 nonsmoking volunteers from Kingston/Harriman, Tennessee wear personal respirable suspended particulate monitors for 3 days. Nonsmokers were divided in two groups: those who lived with a smoker and those who did not. Outdoor and indoor particulate levels were taken for comparison. Results showed that personal exposure was not correlated with outdoor concentrations but that ETS significantly increased an individuals personal concentration profile. In Spengler and Tosteson (1981) 45 nonsmoking adults were monitored for RSP for 18 days. They were also divided into two groups: those exposed to ETS and those who were not. Area monitors were also placed inside and outside. Personal exposure was higher than both indoor and outdoor measurements. On average the individual exposure was increased by 20 µg/m3 among those who reported exposure to ETS. cotinine is a major metabolite of nicotine. McCarthy et al (1987) measured cotinine levels in the urine and saliva of 81 nonsmoking children. Nicotine levels in the air were also monitored as was RSP. They found a high correlation between personal nicotine levels and cotinine indicating a quantitative relationship may exist. They did however, find high variability. Coultas et al. (1987) measured cotinine in the saliva of 1360 nonsmoking children and adults. They found an increase with the number of smokers in the home at all ages. However, household variability was wide and even 304 of the nonsmokers living in a no smoking home had detectable cotinine levels. summary _ 1. Environmental tobacco smoke is the primary contaminant causing elevated RSP levels in enclosed spaces. 2. Environmental tobacco smoke can be a substantial contributor to the level of indoor air pollution concentration of benzene, acrolein, N-nitrosamine, pyrene and carbon monoxide. 3. Measured exposures to respirable suspended particulates are higher for nonsmokers who report exposure to ETS. 72 ------ --------- ---- -- --- ----------

ao/u. 1_nnla cPet Yl l_ ,n... ...I laq MYLtIVIb q.•I(It, ..p\ (r wnun .ww qOi/KM (ara~na r'uuuls I Wb YYIW(1 fOO1M11_ ((NI M ~ryll )/1(It1 0 .Ils\~ I I ( I Yldl I ( I MY31• . llillaal_ 1 I 4.11(11 ~IMIU,.I(RP11• _ IWIILI y1Nl 0.~y ~.~ K(Y.(../V K(+YI(h1• ((I~IYtU ~~ V(1/1 Y.(/ 1 WI. ~ YAIO WY -11Y .u114U -----1-',--)- f11101 ~14tl ~~ FIGURE 2. Schematic of an Atmospheric Aerosol Surface Area Distribution Shoving the Three Modes, Main Source of Mass for Each Mode, the Frincipal Process Involved in Insetting Mass into Each Mode, and the Principal Removal Mechanisms Source: Whitby (1978)

141(5):383-400, 1982. HILLER, F.C., MCKII6RER, H.T., MAZDNDER, M.H., WILSON, J.D., BONE, R.C. Deposition of sidestream cigarette smoke in the human respiratory tract. American Review of Respiratory Disease 125(4):406-408, 1982. HINDB, W.C., FIRST, M.M. Concentrations of nicotine and tobacco smoke in public places. New Enoland Journal of Medicine 292(16):844-845, 1975. HOFFMAN, D., HALEY, N.J., BRIINNElW1, x.D., ]1DANS, J.D., IIYNDER, E.L. Cigarette Sidestream Smoke: Formation. Analysis and Model Studies on the uctake by Nonsmokers. Paper presented at the U.S.-Japan meeting on the new etiology of lung cancer, Honolulu, March 21-23, 1983. INGEBRETHSEN, B.J., SEARS, B.B. Particle Size Distribution of the Sidestream Smoke. Paper presented at the 39th Tobacco Chemists' Research Conference, Montreal, October 2-5, 1986. J4, C., SPENGLER, J.D. Room-to-room variations in concentrations of respirable particles in residences. Environmental Sciences and Technoloov 15(5):592-596, 1981. JUST, J., BORHOWSRA, M., M71ZIARKA, S. Zanieczyszcenie dymen tytoniwym powietrza kawiarn Warszawskich (Tobacco smoke in the air of Warsaw coffee rooms). Roczniki Pantstwowego Zakladu Hycienv 23(2):129-135, 1972, KEITH, C.H., DERRICK, J.C. Measurement of the particles size distribution and concentration of cigarette smoke by the confuge. Journal of Colloid Science 15:340-356, 1960. LIIS, J., RIIHN, H. Verteilung verschiedener tabakrauchbestandteile auf haupt-und nebenstromrauch (eine ubersicht) (Distribution of various tobacco smoke components among mainstream and sidestream smoke (a survey).- Hietraoe zur Tabakforschunc International 11(5):229-265, 1982. LEADERER, B.P., CAIN, II.B., ISBEROFF, R. Ventilation requirements in buildings: 2. Particulate matter and carbon monoxide from cigarette smoking. AtmosDheric Environment 18(1):99-106, 1984. LEBRET, E. Air Pollution in Dutch Homes, Ph.D. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands, 1985. LEBRET, E., McCARTHY, J., SPENGLER, J.D. A survey of time- activity patterns in Kingston/Harriman. Methods and Support for Modelled Data. Presented at Quality Assurance in Air Pollution Measurements Conferences, Boulder, Colorado, October 14-18, 1984. 74 m .j ~ O 00 N 0o U1

TABLE 4. Respirable Particulate Levels as a Function of Number of Smokers SMAW e~ Nu.li. IHu IpqhY w..4N 4.i.W. No rk.n I mwk.. X Y~1,IM ryW u rwuw ..P&. W •u 114 tu ! 8rYm I 4r/lat Yylr 70.4 eti f. edr. 4 MrR eiqi. s3J 11.s sOVSRl#wWw.Ln1Uu 7

McCARTHY, J., SPENGLER, J., CHANG, B. A personal monitoring study to assess exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. pSoceedinos of the 4th International Conference on Indoor Air Oualitv and Climate, Berlin (West), 17-21 August 1987. MIESNER, E.A., RUDNICE, B.N., PRELLER, L., HU, F.C., SPENGLER, J.D., OZAAYNAR, H., NELSON, W. Report to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cooperative Agreement No. CR-813526-01-0, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA (1988). MUAAMATSU, M., UMEMURA, S., OKADA, T., TOMITA, H. Estimation of personal exposure to tobacco smoke with a newly developed nicotine personal monitor. Environmental Research 35(l):218-227, 1984. NEAL, A.D., WADDEN, R.A.S., ROSENBERG, B.H. Evaluation of indoor particulate concentration for an urban hospital. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 39(7):578-582, 1978. PORBTENDORFER, J., SCERAUE, A. Concentration and mean particle size of the main and side stream of cigarette smoke. Staub-Rein. 32:33-36, 1972. QIIACEENBO88, J.J., HANAREH, M.S., SPENGLER, J.D., LETZ, R. Personal monitoring for nitrogen dioxide exposure: Methodological considerations for a community study. Environmental International 8(1-6);249-258, 1982. QUACKENBOSS, J.J., SPENGLER, J.D., EANAREH, M.S., LET3, R., DIIFFY, C.P. Personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide: relationship to indoor/outdoor air quality and activity patterns. Environmental Science and Technology 20:775-783, 1986. QIIANT, P.R., NELSON, P.A. BE, G.J. Experimental measurements of aerosol concentration in offices. Environment International 8:223-227, 1982. REPACE, J.L., LOWREY, A.H. Indoor air pollution, tobacco smoke, and public health. Science 208:464-472, 1980. REPACE, J.L., LOAREY, A.H. Tobacco smoke, ventilation, and indoor air quality. American Society of Heatino. Refrigerating. and Air-Conditionina Enaineers. Inc.. Transactions 88 (part 1):895-914, 1982. BAHDMA, H., EUBAMA, M., MUNHAHATA, S. OHSIIMI, T., BIIGApARA, S. The distribution of cigarette smoke components between mainstream and sidestream smoke: 1. Acidic components. $gitraee zur Tabakforschunc 12(2):63-71, 1983. 75

TABLE 2. Mean Percent Time Spent in Various Locations for Three Population Groups phase Ioution population group rorken nonrorken studenta combined touls summer .inter home (SDI 59.3111.9) 75.2112.1/ 66.3 (12.5) 65.. (13.31 outside ISDI 12.319.11 ' 12.919.9/ 15.0 (9.3) 13.7 (9..1 motor vehicle (SD) S.6 (t.21 4.4 /2.71 3.3 (t.31 4.4 (..31 .nrk/.chool ISD1 15.5 (10.91 0.2 (0.8) 4.4 (7.61 a4 (10.61 other indoor. (SD) 7.0 (6.1) 7.2 (6.4) 9.0 (9.61 6.1 (8.21 N 137 32 177 346 ' hom. (SDI 6&1 a1.0 $3.3 (e.o 66.1 (10.1) 673 (11.5) outside ISDI 3.3 (5331 1.9 (2.0/ 3.9 (3.3) 3.5 (4.21 mowr vehicle /SD) 3.6 13.61 4.3 (2.51 3.3 12.61 4.2 (..11 .wk/aahool (SDI 16.6 (10.4) 3.0 (7.1) 19.5 (7.5) 17.9 (9.71 ather indoon (SD) 6.4 (6.01 7.6 (3.31 7.3 (6.2) 7.0 (6.1) N 127 26 176 329 Source: Quackenboss et al. (1986)

TABLE 1. Mean Percent and Standard Deviation of Tlme Allocation in Various Locations by Work or School Classification Subgroup lmlia lkm.m.Yr 9mlrt puWww whA o01a/ l.nis Idr.iJi Omreret's Ta.i .Y peaep.eY, Nar l1.71 Oll 41.0 LLN 67a Nsl QAL. a1lb (a17Q 017b paq (171YI OuWd. $i! LC lan tO IOIM a0r (3Sl1 Oi7) . oMU Oail n0.74 (7A71 1(alw whitl. /q UI aa/ UY 744 Idl Q.UI 0.7U KIH G.37) Od71 Hm 0" LAmn 4.01 S7J1 faD u11 31f0 ttm QSD 00.611 (fSl (107q (IZN) (lli!) faekiea /!i 0.11 0A0 T]7 042 124 (ilp 0.711 001 Qbl pJq (Illl Nar .od.n 284 1 170 176 11.71 12.03 4.10 pISA Rali (iAq (1f.1p (10.06) P.711 Nus6r I a 4 17 $ ' M Wra. r,r..~~~.n W a.M.N Mfnla 'i~...~rinr rnep.r wn W W. u. rW Yw r M+..fnu.1~./. a0{aQ DW IY.. Q~ r.l IIses

REFERENCEa BADRE, R., OCILLERN, R., ABRAN, N., BOUTDIN, N., DIINAB, C. Pollution atmospherique par la fumee de tabac (Atmospheric pollution by smoking). Annales Pharmaceuticues Francaises 36(9/10):443-452, 1978. BRIINNEMANN, X.D., ADAISB, J.D, EO, D.P.B., BOFFNANN, D. The influence of tobacco smoke on indoor atmospheres: 2. Volatile and tobacco-specific nitrosamines in main- and sidestream smoke and their contribution to indoor pollution. Proceedings of the Fourth Joint Conference on Sensing fo Environmental Pollutants, New Orleans, 1977. American Chemical Society, 1978, pp. 876-880. CANO, J.P., CATALIN, J., BADRE, R., DUNAS, C., VIALA, A., GDILLERMB, R., Determination de la nicotine par chromatographie en phase gazeuse: 2. Applications (Determination of nicotine by gas-phase chromatography: 2. Applications). Annales pharmaceuticues Francaises 28 (11):663-640, 1970/ COULTAS, D.B., HOWARD, C.A., PEAEE, G.T., 6EIPPER, B.J., SAMET, J.N. Salivary cotinine levels and involuntary tobacco smoke exposure in children and adults in New Mexico. American Rev. Resc. Dis. 136:305-309, 1987. CIIDDEBACR, J.E., DONOVAN, J.R., BURG, N.R. Occupational aspects of passive smoking. American Industrial Hvciene Association Journal 37(5):Z63-267, 1976. DOCRERY, D.A., SPENGLER, J.D. Indoor-outdoor relationships of respirable sulfates and particles. Atmosnheric Environment 15(3):335-343, 1981. DUZUBAY, T.G., STEVENS, R.II. Ambient air analysis with dichotomous sampler and x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Environmental Science and Technoloav. 9(7):663-668, 1975. ELLIOTT, L.P., ROWE, D.R. Air quality during public gatherings. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 25(6):635-636, 1975. FIRST, N.N. Environmental tobacco smoke measurements: Retrospect and prospect. Eurocean Journal of Resciratorv Diseases 65(Supp. 133):369-376, 1984. HARLOS, D.P., NARBIIRY, M., BANET, J., SPENGLER, J.D. Relating indoor NOZ levels to infant personal exposures. AtmosDheric Environment, 21(2):369-376, 1987. BARNSEN, R., EFPENBERGER, E. Tabakrauch in verkehrmitteln, wohn un arbeitsraumen (Tobacco smoke in transportation vehicles, living and working rooms). Archiv fur hvfiene und bakteriolooie m 73 .I ~ O m N cc »'a

SARQMA, H., KUSAMA, M., YAMAGUCHI, K., MATBIIRI, T., SUGAWARA, 8. The distribution of cigarette smoke components between mainstream and sidestream smoke:2. Bases. Beitrace zur Tabakforschuna 12(4):199-209, 1984. i BAEIIMA, H., RIISAMA, M., YAMAGUCHI, E., SUGAWARA, T. The distribution of cigarette smoke components between mainstream and sidestream smoke:3. Middle and higher boiling components. Beitraoe zur Tabakforschung 12(5):251-258, 1984. _ SCHMELTZ, I. dePA0LI8, A., HOFFMANN, D. Phytosterols in tobacco: Quantitative analysis and fate in tobacco combustion. Beitrace zur Tabakforschunc 8(4):211-218, 1975. SPENGLER, J.D., DOCKERY, D.W., TURNER, •.A., *OLFSON, J.M., FERRIB, B.C. JR. Long-term measurements of respirable sulfates and particles inside and outside homes. Atmosoheric Environment 15(1):23-30, 1981. SPENGLER, J.D., REED, M.P., LEBRET, E., CHANG, B.H., WARE, J.H., SPEIZER, F.E., PERRIB, B.G. JR. Harvard's indoor air Dollution/health studv. Paper presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 22-27, 1986. SPENGLER, J.D., TREITMAN, R.D., TOBTESON, T.D., NAGE, D.T., BoCZEE, M.L. Personal exposures to respirable particulates and implications for air pollution epidemiology. Environmental Science and Technoloav 19(8): 700-707, 1985. SPENGLER, J.D., TOSTESON, T.D. Statistical Models for Personal Exnosures Data. Paper presented at Environmetrics 81, Conference of the society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Alexandria, Virginia, April 1981. WALLACE, L., PELLIZZARI, E., HARTWELL, T.D., PERRITT, R, ZIEGENFUB, R. Exposures to benzene and other volatile compounds from active and passive smoking. Archives of Environmental Aealth 42(5):271-279, 1987. AEBER, A., FISCHER, T. Passive smoking at work. International Archives of Occunational and Environmental Health 47(3):209-221, 1980. IIHITBY, K.T. The physical characteristics of sulfur aerosols. Atmosnheric Environment 12:135-159, 1978) U.S. DEPARTMENT OP HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES. The Health Conseauences of Involuntary Smokina. A Report of the Surgeon General. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 87-8398, 1986. Q.B. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION AND II.B. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, GO 76 m 0 QD N ~ ~

8'7808299 , w j I 3 b x -4 it R In '8isnnM I I I I I I : ]_ '{Q I y i M 9 11 ~i3HIP51' ~ffl IIIIIIIIII iII 1111111112 M YyY1sYyr1~1ryr'~P1~ 'Y~Y=Y ~'l.~iL]EiY]C.15 fC.T.]C bbbb6IIaIit 36a

TABLE 5. Particulates Measured under Realistic ConditLons Oenqnn7 Mmerw4 1.•.Y ("I.') 4.w' Mi.') typ .( f.e4n rdsn ..&~ Ewir Pv+ w 100.•1 VmYl.oe. (.iU NY ED Ii.. ED I R.pa.d Cadeuil P'V 0.76 N.ruN t.0"q Idp IW1 1]I MwhMIsI use0t e.r w R(0 1.» 11tl.N.1 n,wn. liqu s7r rs.eisl nd;, Ew rr,, .l W/araWlleuq. E.3/ WAUISI Cw,tl WVe Pm, 0.47 Ydrnel Ie. 0.7{ Mrl.nid ee.uat .uq Is7 Y.a.eel N.PW ..iLiy ioes 21E N.iu"sl soOPmi M~ ..'•una E.a01e I 0.1a NO&A."sl Essl. 2 0.1E Wdnsl 1ul.rr tiam.et OL Hs6.isl E.ed+ieA •.~.wm A Erti.a .etia Oa Yslulsl NareYiss rniea 0 If.a~.isl /rtlad ~s.una 0.{! N.eafiaisl Epeu ~ne. OA• Wei&eisl N.isElxhed n'bm.evSu a10 Yrsaisl HeW 6.e OJe Ilriwaial Ew.d•......g e E.ou.e .nia 0.13 N.d..:r N..e.4ief ..oa 0 Yslt.efd Ile.eea. ~t ]aE N.e..'sl oa w) Owte~ ew EM u_"a'cw (4.7 tl') R.ps .d Dinr t6+1.r 0.14 16r8Stld l,.nl 11..oef.lru w N.a.eisl vm sa• ru aa' N.w oaE' rw.elew (Is .a) IE E01 s N E4 p aT s EI tl' u r s  a' 14 417 s a a• E1 414 ! N 40'  331 L 1E0 sE• a t/0 t lE 30 12 >70 s s a' EO EOR t 10 O' 1s Isf s a Y' ]a 137 s 0 M• 1s ]tl s 4 EO' 10 111 s 11 '0' EO I•0 s EO 40. EO Y s e ED 40 IOE s s M' ]E N t 1E a' 13 a a 17 a' 11 a s E EO a a z 7 a tl E1 u ]m• Eo 0 1947' a 44 146 s N Q sY a EOl s EO Ei' E 1140 o' e su• .e• SOURCE: U,S. Department of Eealth and Human Services (1086)

TABLE 3. Distribution of Constituents in Mainstream Smole (MS) and the Ratio of Sidestream Smolke (SS) to MS of Nonfilter Cigarettes MS SS: MS M.S 56A6 V.poM phr mnttiUwnY' nnre r.tie P.nitvlaW yh.r .ee.itweu' nw rw C.Aoen nw'a.1Y 10-15 .4 Il-/.7 Putivl.4 rtler' 13-10 wr 111) Cu4ee Iie.i4 90-07 n[ L11 NiMilr 1-l.6 mr 2611 C.r0.nr1 •uN4h 1l-12 p( 0NA.1i aw.Y4ir f-70 pg <a1A3 6t~nen.' Isae 1y 1o PbnM 00.140,4 1 LL Tnlwlw IOD PC 4 fSt.ehd I00-110 yW 0,46 " Pvm.:dehldt 70-100 y6 0.1yl0 Nrdnquim.. II0.100 M{ 0.7-01 Mrd.ie a-100 W `ib Anilix 7®.r 70 Anwne 100-TSO iy 2.4 1T.lwdi.. 1® q 1f Pyridn. SMnnrlc>.dine 16-10 Mr 17-]B y{ i1L YIS iNqhOpW.i.' LMinaWphmylt 1.7.{ It K 30 II }Vin.Ip.nlin. 11d0 W '610 !en{.F"Ihnair' P-70 y 31 Hydrqen q.nid. 100.500 rr 01-073 lenta(.pyrent' 70J0.r tbia H1dru.n.' 32 u[ 1 C+eL4N 37 W W Anma+v •.b170'pl 40-170 THutllelatsn.• 10-?S yc 7,0-1a Mrch.~w 11.5-1a7 14 4 244 Qui~alov • 0b7 q Llt Dfn.MlW.im 7}10 pg 3.741 Hunrn 1.7J1 yC 0.7-v Nikqs ..:Y 100.400 .a 4I0 M.Nhlmanimti.• f00-S.Om ry 0a.1 NdNYaedinah7l.mim• l0~0 y 70-Im NNK• 100-1.OOO.s /i .NM.r{.Ptslidie.• 0-70n( NO N.NUVMienthuwl.mil.' 70-70.r ts P«.k a;+ u0-n g 1.41e 61aio 100 q /1 iY.tle a:1 ]70.e10 p 1l71 Niddt Lba 11a liet tl .g 17 hYdarx10• 001-O.1 ra I.au benit d 147s r( e.t7;le S.pie .er 617/ N 060-1 ciVait ar Sum.e .3/ n-1f/ w 1 NN4O .c w41s aa10.Q • V./t• u. r. a/M r.tlaw Ms.wr a • N.... a..u•y.. MIIC tMSt •lywul Mr..niw/.n f1AAC IM.t •A.1..1 ~ W K IOR SOVIItt Olrt .rI {t.w 1lfrtt NArr.. a, .1. Ilreft fllw .d R.M IIMCt lJ~ a l IIMI /tt~ I~ T.w.r.+t M.WI" w a Il1Yt 11.r Rr.a T..Aw.l: •~/.N 11MttlA.NU a.111/1 M