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Lung cancer mortality ratios by degree of inhalation - ACS 25-State Study 20 17.0 Nonsmoker Degree of Inhalation None Slight Moderate Deep . 87808263

8'7808259 Percentage of smokers and nonsmokers, 1955--1985 Men Women 1 0 100 0 7 90 90 80 Never smokers 7 8 _10 70 70~ Never smokers 60 Former smokers 60-7 50 50 40 40 o/Former smokers 30 30 20 Smokers 20-j Smokers 10 10-~ 0 0 19ss 19" 1975 809385 +s5S /9bs 1975 90 03" Year

Lung cancer mortality ratios for men, by current number of cigarettes smoked per day-- ACS 25 state study 2 0-, 1 5-{ Q - N ~ ~' 1 - 0~ ~ ~ O .~ 5-~ 4.62 1.00 0 Nonsmoker 1-9 14.69 8.62 10-19 20-39 18.71 40+ 87808261 Cigarettes Smoked per Day

8'7808258 Lifetime prevalence of cigarette smoking by birth cohort 47.3 M 28.2 Former® Current 51.4 51.4 a 33.3 -48.1 _46.6- ® 33.1 0-~-~~-~-~- 36.5 1910-19 1920-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 190Q. 65 Birth cohort Source: National Health Interview Survey, 1983. U

concentration in the environments that people spend their time. Personal air monitoring employs samples (worn by individuals) that record the integrated concentration of a contaminant individuals are exposed to in the course of their normal activity for time periods of several hours to several days. The monitors can be active (employing pumps to collect and concentrate the air contaminant) or passive (working on the principal of diffusion). As with biomarkers personal monitoring provides an integrated measure of exposure to an individual air contaminant across a number of environments in which the individual spends time. It provides no individual environments. Questionnaires have been used extensively in epidemiologic studies for the classification of individuals into broad categories of ETS exposure based upon self reports of exposure. Questionnaires are also used to obtain information on the physical environments in which exposures take place and the factors affecting the exposures in those environments (volume, number of cigarettes, etc.) as well as the amount of time people spend in those environments. Questionnaires are an indirect measure of exposure and as such cannot provide information on specific levels. The modeling approach employs the use of stationary monitors (active or passive) to measure ETS associated air contaminant concentrations in a number of spaces (microenvironments). These measured concentrations are then combined with time activity patterns (time budgets) to determine the average exposure of an individual as the sum of the concentrations in each environment weighed by the time spent in that environment. When the air sampling data for a given space is combined with information concerning the factors controlling the contaminant concentrations in the space (ventilation , mixing, number of cigarettes smoked, etc) models can be developed and validated to predict concentration sin occupied spaces where sampling data goes not exist. It is this modeling approach which is used in Chapter 7 of this report. Critical to assessing total exposure to ETS either through personal air monitoring or through modeling is the method of air contaminant monitoring used. This chapter will present a discussion of the issues to be considered in air sampling for ETS with emphasis on air sampling in enclosed spaces rather than on personal monitoring. Selection of ETS contaminants to be monitored, available methods of sample collection and analysis, operating principals for each method, relative advantages and disadvantages of each method and sources for purchase of sampling equipment will be covered. SELECTION OF ETS CONTAMINANTS FOR MONITORING m 54 .~ ~ O OD ~ ~ ~

l.More information is needed on the variability of nicotine emissions from a variety of brands of cigarettes. 2.The ration of nicotine to other vapor phase and particle phase ETS constituents (including RSP) needs to be better evaluated under a range of environmental condition s(temperature, humidity, mixing, etc.) and in different environments. 3.There are no health standards controlling exposures to nicotine and nicotine has not been identified as a contaminant directly associated with adverse health or comfort effects, therefore nicotine concentration sin spaces should be interpreted with care. MEASUREMENT OF RSP AND NICOTINE IN AIR The measurement of RSP and vapor phase nicotine, as with any air'contaminant, requires careful consideration of such factors as the spatial and temporal distribution of the contaminant in the spaces of interest, the time averaging measurement desirable, the physical and chemical characteristics of the contaminants and availability of accurate and relatively inexpensive measurement methods that are easy to use. Concentrations of RSP, nicotine, and other ETS constituents in an enclosed space can exhibit a pronounced spatial and temporal distribution. The concentration is the result of a complex interaction of several important variables including; a) the generation rate of the contaminant(s) from the tobacco; b) the rate of tobacco consumptionr c) the ventilation or infiltration ratet c) the concentration of the contaminant(s) in the ventilation or infiltration air; e) air mixing in the space; f) removal of contaminants by surfaces or chemical reactions; g) remission of contaminants by surfaces; and h) the effectiveness of any air cleaners that may be present. The location for obtaining a RSP or nicotine measurement in a space, time of sample collection and length of sample have to take into consideration the above factors. Generally background concentrations of RSP (during no smoking in the space) is desirable because of other sources of RSP, particularly outdoor sources. Since nicotine is removed by indoor surfaces it might be useful to obtain background levels of nicotine in environments where smoking is heavy. Background levels of nicotine might also be indicative of outgassing from surfaces of other volatile ETS components. Selection of the sampling location(s) will in large part be determined by the goal of the monitoring effort and available equipment. For example, it the goal is to assess concentrations in the general enclosed environment where smoking may be 58

Lifetime prevalence of cigarette smoking by birth cohort Former® Current 77.0 ~ 3 32.7 a 20- • -~- 10- - 0- -~- 74.3 1910-19 1920- 29 1930-39 38.7 - 57.6 1940-49 1950- 59 1960- 65 Birth cohort Source: National Health Interview Survey,1983. S'780825"y A a N

&'780S2s2 0 2 Lung cancer mortality ratios for males, by age began smoking - U.S. Veterans' Study 20 5.2 18.7 Nonsmoker 25+ 20-24 15-19 <1S Age began smoking (in years)

frame of reference in interpreting measured RSP levels associated with ETS. The EPA standard is for particle mass, 10 um. I The major drawbacks in using RSP as a marker for ETS are the following: 1.RSP encompasses a broad range of particles of varying chemical composition and size emanating from a number of sources both outdoors and indoors and as such is not unique to ETS. 2.background levels of RSP, form other sources, in inclosed spaces has to be determined in order to assess the contribution of ETS. 3.the ratio of specific ETS vapor or particle phase air contaminants of health concern to RSP in ETS is not known. Vapor phase nicotine has recently been the focus of research efforts to assess its use as marker for ETS in indoor environments. Nicotine like RSP exhibits many of the properties necessary to serve as•a potential marker for ETS, including: l.it is unique to tobacco smoke and is predominately in one phase. 2.Nicotine emissions are a major component of the air contaminant emissions emitted into the environment by tobacco combustion with relative little variability across brands of cigarettes when considered on a gram of tobacco consumed bases. 3.Nicotine has been easily measured in environments where smoking occurs even when the smoking rates are low. 4.Some recent field studies have bound a reasonably consistent RSP to vapor phase ration for ETS in the residential and non- industrial occupational environments (11, 12), suggesting that vapor phase nicotine, for some applications, may vary with ETS related RSP and this be-used to estimate the RSP attributable to ETS. 5.A number of new sampling methods are available to accurately and inexpensively measure environmental nicotine levels. 6.Nicotine is one of the very few air contaminants associated with ETS for which sensitive biochemical measures of exposure exist (nicotine and cotinine in physiological fluids), thus providing a link between air concentrations of ETS and internal dose. The major drawbacks in using vapor phase nicotine as a marker for ETS are the following: 57

Major risk factor combinations, 'i 0-year incidence of first major coronary events, men age 30-59 at entry, Pooling project 189 87808265 .~ ° N .     . . . . .  None SM CorH Only o( 3 Only SMBC C8H AII3 or (No SM) SM&H Risk Factor Status at Entry SM = smoker. C- cholesterol, H - hypertension

2 40 10 COLD mortality ratios for men and women, by number of cigarettes smoked per day, 87808268 British Physicians' Study Nonsmoker 1-14 15-24 25+ Cigarettes per day

87808264 Lung cancer mortality ratios in ex-cigarette smokers, by number of years stopped smoking - British Physicians' Study 20 16.0 2 Nonsmokers Current Smokers 5.3 1-4 5-9 10-14 ~ Number of years off cigarettes r

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is a complex mix of over 4,000 air contaminants found in both the vapor and particle phase. Some of the ETS contaminants are associated solely with the combustion of tobacco (e.g. nicotine and tobacco specific nitrosimines) while others are emitted by a number of other sources in the outdoor and indoor environment (e.g. carbon monoxide and respirable suspended particles). Given this complex mix it is necessary to identify an air contaminant or class of air contaminants for monitoring that would be indicative of the presence and amount of ETS in an indoor space. Such a contaminant or class of contaminants are called tracer, marker or proxy compounds. The appropriateness or usefulness of a marker compound for the identification and quantification of ETS in indoor environments is evaluated by the following five criteria: S.the marker compound would be unique or nearly unique to the tobacco so that other outdoor or indoor sources are small in comparison, 2.the marker compound should be in present in sufficient quantity in the tobacco such that when it is emitted it will be in room air concentrations that can be easily detected even when the smoking rates are low, 3.the emission rate for the compound should be similar for a variety of tobacco products, 4.a fairly consistent ration of the marker compound(s) to individual contaminants of interest or categories of contaminants (e.g., suspended particulates) should exist under a range of environmental conditions for a variety of tobacco produces, 5.measurement methods for monitoring the marker compound would be available which will permit the assessment of concentrations of the marker compound in indoor spaces or personal exposure levels in an easy, accurate and cost effective manner. The first four criteria are listed in the NAS report on ETS (9). It should be clearly stated that the above criteria for selecting a suitable marker compound are the ideal criteria and that it practice no single contaminant or class of contaminants have been identified which meet all the criteria. There is in fact no single marker which is universally accepted or recognized as representing ETS. Selection of a suitable marker for ETS reduces to satisfying as many•of the criteria as is practical and recognizing the limitations of the selected marker compound. Over the last several years several marker air contaminants have been used to represent ETS concentrations in both chamber OD 55 ~I CID 0 GD N Vi C

.COLD deaths smokers vs. nonsmokers Deaths per 100,000 persons 500 400 Smokers 300 200 100 0 Nonsmokers 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75-84 Age group ~ m Q m 0 GO N 24 1 0~ ~

Coronary heart qisease deaths, smokers vs. nonsmokers Deaths per 100,000 men 500 1000 996 2500 422 1 2025 800 2000 400 200 600 542 1500 400101 1000 200 150 ~ 100 2W ® ~ 500 0 0 im- _'- 0 Ages 45-54 Ages 55-64 Ages 65-74 =Nonsmokers M Smokers

prohibited or restricted to given location(s) then representative location(s) should be selected for monitoring which would be indicative of the occupants exposure. Toward this end one or two samples in each location may be sufficient. This assumes that the contaminants in the.space are reasonably well mixed. If the goal is to determine the exposure in the work station of an occupant who is concerned about his or her exposure then sampling near or at that persons work station is necessary. Frequently, there are severe limitations on the availability of air sampling equipment resources.for the collection and analysis of collected air samples. Such situations require careful attention to the selection of a representative location for collection of samples. The period of time over which a sample is collected can vary from as little as one minute to as much as two or more weeks depending on the sampling methods employed and the purpose of monitoring. The portable piezoelectric particle mass monitors provide short term RSP measurements over a 24 second or two minute period while passive nicotine monitors can provide integrated measurements from one day to over two weeks. Recording short-term measurements would necessitate several repeated measurements to insure the measurement of a representative concentration in the space since the ETS contaminants can vary considerably in time. Short-term measurements should also be accompanied by the recording of such information as the occupancy and smoker density to determine how representative the measurement would be of a variety of smoking rates that could be expected to be encountered in the space. Long-term measurements need to be interpreted in light of the actual time the spaces were occupied and time smoking occurred. Both short-term and long-term sampling of spaces is useful for a variety of purposes including concentration modeling of spaces, determining compliance with smoking policies, investigating ETS related complaints from occupants and determining exposures associated with health and comfort effects of ETS. MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR RSP ETS related and non-ETS related RSP encompasses a very broad range of particles of varying chemical composition and physical properties. In general terms RSP refers to particles less than 2.5 um with no distinction as to chemical composition or size distribution. Over the e-years there have been a large number of measurement methods developed to measure particles in the RSP size range. These methods have utilized the physical properties of the particles (impaction, light scattering, etc.) to obtain measurements ont he size distribution and mass of the particles in the RSP size range. These monitoring methods vary considerably interims of complexity, application and cost. The RSP sampling methods as with sampling methods for other air contaminants were developed for outdoor and workplace monitoring with relatively few instruments developed specifically for indoor 59 - - - - - - - - - - - - -

studies and in a number of microenvironments where people spent their time. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, acrolein, benzene, toluene, tobacco specific nitrosamines, vapor and particle phase nicotine, isoprene, pyridine, particle phase nicotine and cotinine, respirable suspended particles, polonium-210 and benzo(a)pyrene are among the many air contaminants that have been used or proposed for use as indicators of the presence of ETS. Tables in chapter 6 show the range of concentrations measured in a number of indoor environments were smoking occurred. All the markers used to date have some problems associated with their use, for example, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, etc. have many indoor and outdoor sources other than the combustion of tobacco, while such compound as nitrosamines, benzo[a]pyrene, etc. are sufficiently difficult to measure (concentration sin smoking environments are low, cost of collection and analysis of samples, etc.) such that their use is very limited. At the present time respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP) and vapor phase nicotine are widely and most commonly used as markers of the presence and concentration of ETS for a variety of reasons associated with their ease of measurement, existing knowledge on their emission from tobacco combustion and their relationship to other ETS contaminants. This chapter will focus on the use of RSP and nicotine as markers for ETS and the methods available for their measurement in indoor environments. The use of RSP as a marker for ETS is based upon information obtained from a number of chamber and field studies and available air sampling methodology (9, 10), including the following: l.Tobacco combustion has a major impact on the mass of suspended particle matter in occupied spaces in the size range of ,2.5 um (respirable suspended particle mass - RSP) (9, 10). RSP is a major component of ETS and is detectable above background levels in occupied environments even under conditions of low smoking rates (see Chapters 6 & 7 of this report). 2.RSP contains a number of the tobacco related compounds of health concern. 3.RSP emissions are major component of the air contaminants emitted into the environment from tobacco combustion with relatively little variation in emissions across different brands of cigarettes when considered on a gram of tobacco consumes bases. 4. A number of methods are available to accurately and inexpensively measure RSP levels on a short-term (minutes) or long-term (hours) integrated bases with minimal expense. 5.There are outdoor particle health standards established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which provide a Go 56 Q O 00 tJ G1 M~

CSAPTER S MEASURING EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL TOBACCO SMOEE BRIAN P. LEADERER JORN B. PIERCE FOUNDATION L718. DEPARTMENT OF EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PUBLIC EEALTS YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL O! MEDICINE 290 CONGRESS AVENUE NEW 8AVEN, CONNECTICUT INTRODUCTION Assessing exposure to ETS can be done by direct and indirect methods. Direct.assessment of exposure includes the use of biomarkers and personal air monitoring. Indirect methods include use of questionnaires and modeling. Modeling is based upon measurement of air contaminant concentrations in enclosed spaces, the factors controlling the concentrations and an assessment of the time people spend in those spaces. Direct assessment of exposure includes the use of biomarkers and personal air monitoring. In recent years there has been a growing interest in the analysis of physiological fluids for specific compounds that are indicative of exposure to ETS. Thiocyanate (1), carboxyhemlobin (2), nicotine and cotinine (3), hydroprloine (4), N- Nitrosoproline (5), aromatic amines (6), genotoxicity (7) and protein or DNA adducts (8) measurements in physiological fluids have all been considered as indicators of exposure to either active or passive tobacco smoke. while these biomarkers are indicative of exposure they may not be directly related to potential for development of the adverse effect under study and can show considerable variability from individual to individual sue to differences in uptake, distribution and metabolism. Some of these markers may not be specific to ETS exposure (e.g., carboxyhemoglobin) while others (e.g., thiocyanate) may be useful for active smoke exposure but not sensitive enough for ETS exposures. Biomarkers are indicators of exposure not measures of dose. Cotinine and nicotine measures in the blood, urine and saliva have been widely used as indicators of exposure to ETS (e.g. g) and are valuable in determine total or integrated exposure to ETS across all environments that na individual spends his time. A biomarker of exposure however, does not provide an exact measure of ETS exposure in any one environment of provide information on the environmental factors impacting the 53

applications. The discussion of measurement methods for RSP presented here will cover only those methods which have relatively wide application, as determined by cost, ease of use and accuracy, in measuring RSP in indoor spaces. Table 1 presents a summary of the RSP measurement methods which are applicable for use in monitoring RSP levels indoors. The table lists the measurement method, sampling times, sampling rates, concentration range, accuracy, manufacturer and cost for each monitor as well as comments concerning the use of the monitor. Many of the instruments are gravimetric providing an integrated measure of particle mass concentrations over several hours to several days, while other systems utilize light scattering or piezoelectric resonance to provide a short-term measure of particle concentration. The gravimetric measurements require the weighing of filters before and after particle collection in a humidity and temperature controlled environment to determine the mass concentration. The gravimetric measurement also results in a particle mass sample which could, depending on the filter media use and handling and storage of the collected sample, be subjected to detailed chemical analysis to obtain additional source information. Gravimetric particle mass - measurement methods are considered a standard method on particle measurement. The actual size distributions measured by the instruments vary considerably with the optical scattering instruments measuring a broad particle size range (0.1 - 10.0 um) while other monitoring systems (e.g. gravimetric methods) utilize cyclones or impactors to collect the mass of particles below 3.5 or 2.5 um. Only some of the monitors actually measure RSP, particles less than or equal to 2.5 um. Selection of a method for monitoring RSP depends in large part on the purpose for taking the measurements. If the application calls for integrated particle mass measurements in spaces over a period of days with chemical analysis of filters then the integrated gravimetric measurements utilizing the Harvard or NBS samplers may be the methods of choice. These systems are not as portable as the other systems listed in Table 1. If six to twelve hour particle mass concentrations of spaces or personal samples (sampler worn by a subject) with possible subsequent filter analysis then the standard industrial hygiene personal pumps with particle preselectors may be the method of choice. In using any gravimetric method care must be taken to insure the sampling times are sufficient to collect adequate particle sample for accurate determination of mass concentrations. In addition, pump flow rates and filter selection and handling are important. If the sampling application calls for short-term measurements in one or several locations over variable time frames with lightweight portable equipment which is easy to use then the piezobalance or light scattering monitoring systems might be the methods of choice. It should be noted that all the methods listed in Table 1 have been used with good success in chamber and 60 Q~ ~ ~ C m N C11 6^

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8'7808263 r

biomarkers and modeling which utilized air monitoring of spaces, questionnaires and time activity patterns. Air monitoring is critical to assessing exposures to ETS in indoor environments and to assessing the effectiveness of efforts to control or mitigate exposures. ETS is a complex mix of several thousand chemicals found in both vapor and particle phase. The selection of a given air contaminant or class of contaminants to represent ETS for air monitoring purposes is at best complicated. No single contaminant or class of contaminants meet all the measures of and ideal ETS tracer or marker. Respirable suspended particle mass (RSP) and vapor phase nicotine are two reasonable markers for the ETS in indoor environments although not ideal. RSP and vapor phase nicotine measurements taken in an occupied space to assess ETS should take into account the spatial and temporal variations in those spaces and be complemented with some measure of smoking density and background air contaminant levels. A number of integrated and short-term measurement methods exist which can be used to measure vapor phase nicotine indoors. The choice of a given method is in large part determined by a purpose of the measurement and there financial and technical resources available. Gb ~ ~ 63 O m tJ ~ N

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field studies of particle mass concentrations associated with and smoking and nonsmoking occupancy. Critical to the use of the short-term particle mass monitoring systems is a recognition of their relative accuracy in measuring ETS particle mass. Recently a detailed comparative study of the accuracy of the short-term measurement methods in measuring ETS RSP was reported (13). The study compared all of the MINIRAM, HAM and Piezobalance (Model 5000) to gravimetric mass measurements in a series of chamber studies where a wide range of chamber particle loadings were generated by tobacco combustion (machine generated sidestream, machine generated sidestream + mainstream and human smokers). The results of the study indicated that the piezobalances needed careful sample flow checks and calibration to agree with qravimetric measures. The MINIRAM after adjustment agreed well with gravimetric measures. The HAM was consistently low when compared to the gravimetric measure. The study suggests that while care must be taken in using the short-term measurement methods (calibration of flows, aerosol density corrections, etc.), such systems are very useful and surprisingly accurate in measuring particle mass associated with tobacco combustion. i MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR NICOTINE Nicotine in ETS has recently been found to be predominantly in the vapor phase with on the order of less than 5% in the particle phase (14, 15, and 16). Active and passive sampling/analysis methods applicable to monitoring nicotine levels in occupied indoor environments have been developed and reported in the literature over the past four years. The methods are based upon the collection of nicotine by absorption on a sorbent resin or acidic surface with subsequent desorption and gas chromatography separation with a nitrogen-phosphorus detection (GC/NPD). One active system (17,18) employs a personal sampling pump (typical industrial hygiene personal pump) to draw air at 1.0 1/min through a 7 mm glass tube containing XAD-4 sorbent. During sampling vapor phase nicotine is absorbed onto the XAD-4 sorbent, desorbed in the laboratory and analyzed by GC/NPD. The XAD-4 sorbent tubes can be purchased commercially. This method has been evaluated for sampling periods up to one hour with a lower detection limit of 0.1 ug/m3 and can be used as a personal or area monitor. This method has been used in both chamber and field studies of nicotine levels associated with ETS (19, 20). The second active system (21) also uses a personal sampling pump to draw air at a rate of 1.7 1/min through a sampling cassette containing a particle filter and a filter treated with sodium bisulfate. The first filter collects the particles and second filter absorbs the vapor phase nicotine. The second filter is then desorbed and analyzed by GC/NPD. If particle ~ .1 m

8'7808260 Outline of Eight Major Prospective Studies ~, W* rem" Authors NI6 N.mmond Dom NMSy.ms Bul Hsewmld Dum FrIWaO Pwo Kslm JoW Nnrn Undsn iYub.o Plk. ReOM MMpr 6YWo+r Loa1M ~ ~ T~ ~~ L m.4 s • CNMam4 Wnp4 af SuOJ.ds Brl6sh In U.S. 29 A..Oh Gmd4n yVId4 ms4s ms4s In tl» Aucpon 25 vMa.ns alqr441n p.nMaMrs le vrlow 6wdIY1 States d4pr/ nYl. Mw4" oowpsllons populs6on Popu411on Mn 40.000 1.000.000 200.000 266.000 02.060 167.000 06.000 66,000 FauiNS 6.000 662.671 < 1% 112,667 11.000 27.700 A0. R.nO. 2045+ 36a1 3b-8s 40 30-00 60-66 33-64 16-0 and up Yw W 1961 1000 1954 1666 /666 -1662 1064 /663 wa6m.nm 1957 Yws of 20-22 66 lollowup yws 12 ysrs /6 yNrs 13 yws 6 yws 4 yssrs y+rs 10 ys.n r.poAW Number a 11.166 150,000 107.600 30.100 n.000 12.000 4.700 4.600 a..ms Person years of 000.000 6.000.000 3.600.060 3,600,000 60Q000 670.000 400,000 i I 660A00 ..p.rl.wws

t phase nicotine is desired the first filter can be analyzed. The method has been evaluated for 8 hour sampling periods with a lower limit of detection of 0.2 ug/m3 and can be used as a personal or area monitor. The method has been used in both chamber and field studies of nicotine levels associated with ETS (21, 22). Using the same cassette method other investigators have proposed treating the second filter with chemicals other than sodium bisulfate for nicotine collection but the results have not yet been published in the open literature. While not yet published small annular denuder systems for the measurement of nicotine in field studies of indoor spaces are being developed and evaluated (23). Denuder technology has been developed and used in chamber studies characterizing ETS and demonstrated applicable to indoor environmental measurements (24). Such systems will permit the measurement of vapor phase nicotine in indoor spaces at flow rates of about 1 1/min for periods up to several hours to a day or two. Further development of the denuders will be required before they can be used as personal monitors. A passive monitor for measuring vapor phase nicotine in air has recently been reported (25). Passive sampling requires no pump and operates on the basis of molecular diffusion. Ideally, the sampling rate follows Fick's First Law of Diffusion and was determined, through a chamber study to sample at a rate of 24 ml/min. The passive monitor is a cassette which contains a filter treated with sodium bisulfate held in place by a Nuclepore windscreen. After sampling the treated filter is analyzed by GC/NPD. The passive cassette has been evaluated in chamber studies for 4-5 hours at a concentration as low as 16 ug/m3. The passive cassette can be used as a personal or area monitor for nicotine for a period of one or two days (depending on the concentration expected) to several weeks. Recently, the design of the passive cassette has been modified to utilize a new and more durable windscreen and to permit the easier handling and field use. Figure 1 shows the current design of the passive cassette. The passive cassette is currently being used as both a personal and area monitor in a number of field studies of nicotine levels associated with ETS. A recently published report by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (26) provides a compendium on methods for nicotine sampling and analysis. The Compendium provides specific sampling and analysis procedures, in a standardized format, for the measurement of nicotine in air for the two active (XAD-4 and active cassette) methods and one passive (passive cassette) method discussed here. SUIIIdARY Assessing exposure to ETS can employee personal monitoring, 62

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