Tobacco Documents Online

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Lung cancer mortality ratios by degree of inhalation - ACS 25-State Study 20 17.0 Nonsmoker Degree of Inhalation None Slight Moderate Deep . 87808263

8'7808259 Percentage of smokers and nonsmokers, 1955--1985 Men Women 1 0 100 0 7 90 90 80 Never smokers 7 8 _10 70 70~ Never smokers 60 Former smokers 60-7 50 50 40 40 o/Former smokers 30 30 20 Smokers 20-j Smokers 10 10-~ 0 0 19ss 19" 1975 809385 +s5S /9bs 1975 90 03" Year

Lung cancer mortality ratios for men, by current number of cigarettes smoked per day-- ACS 25 state study 2 0-, 1 5-{ Q - N ~ ~' 1 - 0~ ~ ~ O .~ 5-~ 4.62 1.00 0 Nonsmoker 1-9 14.69 8.62 10-19 20-39 18.71 40+ 87808261 Cigarettes Smoked per Day

8'7808258 Lifetime prevalence of cigarette smoking by birth cohort 47.3 M 28.2 Former® Current 51.4 51.4 a 33.3 -48.1 _46.6- ® 33.1 0-~-~~-~-~- 36.5 1910-19 1920-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 190Q. 65 Birth cohort Source: National Health Interview Survey, 1983. U

concentration in the environments that people spend their time. Personal air monitoring employs samples (worn by individuals) that record the integrated concentration of a contaminant individuals are exposed to in the course of their normal activity for time periods of several hours to several days. The monitors can be active (employing pumps to collect and concentrate the air contaminant) or passive (working on the principal of diffusion). As with biomarkers personal monitoring provides an integrated measure of exposure to an individual air contaminant across a number of environments in which the individual spends time. It provides no individual environments. Questionnaires have been used extensively in epidemiologic studies for the classification of individuals into broad categories of ETS exposure based upon self reports of exposure. Questionnaires are also used to obtain information on the physical environments in which exposures take place and the factors affecting the exposures in those environments (volume, number of cigarettes, etc.) as well as the amount of time people spend in those environments. Questionnaires are an indirect measure of exposure and as such cannot provide information on specific levels. The modeling approach employs the use of stationary monitors (active or passive) to measure ETS associated air contaminant concentrations in a number of spaces (microenvironments). These measured concentrations are then combined with time activity patterns (time budgets) to determine the average exposure of an individual as the sum of the concentrations in each environment weighed by the time spent in that environment. When the air sampling data for a given space is combined with information concerning the factors controlling the contaminant concentrations in the space (ventilation , mixing, number of cigarettes smoked, etc) models can be developed and validated to predict concentration sin occupied spaces where sampling data goes not exist. It is this modeling approach which is used in Chapter 7 of this report. Critical to assessing total exposure to ETS either through personal air monitoring or through modeling is the method of air contaminant monitoring used. This chapter will present a discussion of the issues to be considered in air sampling for ETS with emphasis on air sampling in enclosed spaces rather than on personal monitoring. Selection of ETS contaminants to be monitored, available methods of sample collection and analysis, operating principals for each method, relative advantages and disadvantages of each method and sources for purchase of sampling equipment will be covered. SELECTION OF ETS CONTAMINANTS FOR MONITORING m 54 .~ ~ O OD ~ ~ ~

l.More information is needed on the variability of nicotine emissions from a variety of brands of cigarettes. 2.The ration of nicotine to other vapor phase and particle phase ETS constituents (including RSP) needs to be better evaluated under a range of environmental condition s(temperature, humidity, mixing, etc.) and in different environments. 3.There are no health standards controlling exposures to nicotine and nicotine has not been identified as a contaminant directly associated with adverse health or comfort effects, therefore nicotine concentration sin spaces should be interpreted with care. MEASUREMENT OF RSP AND NICOTINE IN AIR The measurement of RSP and vapor phase nicotine, as with any air'contaminant, requires careful consideration of such factors as the spatial and temporal distribution of the contaminant in the spaces of interest, the time averaging measurement desirable, the physical and chemical characteristics of the contaminants and availability of accurate and relatively inexpensive measurement methods that are easy to use. Concentrations of RSP, nicotine, and other ETS constituents in an enclosed space can exhibit a pronounced spatial and temporal distribution. The concentration is the result of a complex interaction of several important variables including; a) the generation rate of the contaminant(s) from the tobacco; b) the rate of tobacco consumptionr c) the ventilation or infiltration ratet c) the concentration of the contaminant(s) in the ventilation or infiltration air; e) air mixing in the space; f) removal of contaminants by surfaces or chemical reactions; g) remission of contaminants by surfaces; and h) the effectiveness of any air cleaners that may be present. The location for obtaining a RSP or nicotine measurement in a space, time of sample collection and length of sample have to take into consideration the above factors. Generally background concentrations of RSP (during no smoking in the space) is desirable because of other sources of RSP, particularly outdoor sources. Since nicotine is removed by indoor surfaces it might be useful to obtain background levels of nicotine in environments where smoking is heavy. Background levels of nicotine might also be indicative of outgassing from surfaces of other volatile ETS components. Selection of the sampling location(s) will in large part be determined by the goal of the monitoring effort and available equipment. For example, it the goal is to assess concentrations in the general enclosed environment where smoking may be 58

Lifetime prevalence of cigarette smoking by birth cohort Former® Current 77.0 ~ 3 32.7 a 20- • -~- 10- - 0- -~- 74.3 1910-19 1920- 29 1930-39 38.7 - 57.6 1940-49 1950- 59 1960- 65 Birth cohort Source: National Health Interview Survey,1983. S'780825"y A a N

&'780S2s2 0 2 Lung cancer mortality ratios for males, by age began smoking - U.S. Veterans' Study 20 5.2 18.7 Nonsmoker 25+ 20-24 15-19 <1S Age began smoking (in years)

frame of reference in interpreting measured RSP levels associated with ETS. The EPA standard is for particle mass, 10 um. I The major drawbacks in using RSP as a marker for ETS are the following: 1.RSP encompasses a broad range of particles of varying chemical composition and size emanating from a number of sources both outdoors and indoors and as such is not unique to ETS. 2.background levels of RSP, form other sources, in inclosed spaces has to be determined in order to assess the contribution of ETS. 3.the ratio of specific ETS vapor or particle phase air contaminants of health concern to RSP in ETS is not known. Vapor phase nicotine has recently been the focus of research efforts to assess its use as marker for ETS in indoor environments. Nicotine like RSP exhibits many of the properties necessary to serve as•a potential marker for ETS, including: l.it is unique to tobacco smoke and is predominately in one phase. 2.Nicotine emissions are a major component of the air contaminant emissions emitted into the environment by tobacco combustion with relative little variability across brands of cigarettes when considered on a gram of tobacco consumed bases. 3.Nicotine has been easily measured in environments where smoking occurs even when the smoking rates are low. 4.Some recent field studies have bound a reasonably consistent RSP to vapor phase ration for ETS in the residential and non- industrial occupational environments (11, 12), suggesting that vapor phase nicotine, for some applications, may vary with ETS related RSP and this be-used to estimate the RSP attributable to ETS. 5.A number of new sampling methods are available to accurately and inexpensively measure environmental nicotine levels. 6.Nicotine is one of the very few air contaminants associated with ETS for which sensitive biochemical measures of exposure exist (nicotine and cotinine in physiological fluids), thus providing a link between air concentrations of ETS and internal dose. The major drawbacks in using vapor phase nicotine as a marker for ETS are the following: 57