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Smoking Behavior 9 ` same-ses modeling by children . .. _ .-_i' 7-.. " !. .~..- .A^.A,.i he present study, 398 females , lings, and 177 fenales and 80 ; rs and older sisters. For the a Table 3 that the percentage : ie same as for the total sample the combined sample in Table 1). i to one of the following three :r sister smoked; (b) Older :c) Older brother and older and Non-Smokers in each of . _ ..ce -eh it may be noted that the - .3 with older brothers and sisters +ere non-smokers. More than iblings Were non-smokers were _entages of Smakers and Non- _ ia 2 z 3 Chi Square analyses, 2.43.39, df-2, p <.001) and - behavior and the smoking iatad in 2 z 2 Chi Square 'cantly higher for students _s ! 825 Smoking Behavior 10 whose older~brothers or sisters smoked, and for students with both older brothers and sisters who smoked, than for students with older sibl•s.gs who '' wre non-smokers (Column 3 vs. Colimm 2: Females, 7C--30.85, df-l, p< .001; Males, 52-7.86, df 1, p<.Ol; Column 4 vs. Coluts 2: Females, E2-30.39, df-1, p<.001; Males, E2-5.63, df=1, p<.05). I though the percentage of Smokers in the "brother and sister smoked" ca4ego4 was slightly higher than in the "brother or sister smoked" category, this difference was not statistically significant for either females (X-2.71, df-l) or males (82.0.46, df-1). In order to evaluate the possibility that the smoking habits of older brothers and older sisters had differential influence on the smoking behavior a of their younger siblings, the percentage of Smokers and Non-Smokers among students whose older siblings smoked was compared. For the 215 students ehose older sistera smoked, the percentage of female Smokers (66.) was significantly higher than the percentage (46S) of male Smokers (S--8.12, df-l, p<.01), .rhereas the difference in the percentages of female (60S) and male (54.) Smokers for the 231 students whose older brothers smoked was not significant (Z2-0.13, df-1). Thus, older sisters seemed to have a greater impact on the smoking behavior of their younger sisters than on their younger brothers, whereas older brothers appeared to have a similar influence on the smoking behavior of youmger'siblings of both sexes. In the preceeding analyses, older siblings appeared to have a greater influence on the smoking behavior of their younger siblings than did their parents. The combined influence of the smoking habits of parents and older siblings on the smoking behavior of the 955 students who participated in the present study is examined in Table 4. Evaluation of the differences in the percentages of Smokers and aon-Smaksrs for the six smoking categorias defined I`` 94~ ~- f ii

826 Smoking Behavior 11 by the smoking habits of parents and older siblings resulted in highly signif*_- cant 2 x 6 Chi Squares for both females (R2.40.34, df-5, p(.001) and tales (aC -23.19, df-5, p<.001). In general, the percentage of Smokers was higher for students with older siblings who were saokers (Colurms 4-6), and lower for students whose older siblings (if any) were non-s;akers (Colu=s 1-3). whose parents did not smoke whose parents smoked. As ea rent Smakers if one or both ever, when evaluated in 3 x statistically significant fo df-4). Insert Table 4 about here In order to further clarify the relationship between family smoking habits and the smoking behavior of the students in the present study, separate 2 x 3. Chi Squares were computed for students with older brothers and/or sisters who ~ smoked (See Table 4, Columns 4-6), and for students with no older siblings who smoked (Columns 1-3). As previously noted, students whose older siblings _ _ ..~ smoked were more Iikely themselves to be Smokers, but parental smoking habits appeared to have no influence on their smoking behavior (females: %2.1.72, df-1; males: X2-4.28, df-2). In contrast, although students wich no older siblings who smoked were less likely to be Smokers, these students were more likely to smoke if one or both parents smoked than if neither parent sa.oked (females: 22-15.53, df-2, p(.001; males: Z2.8.58, df-2, p<.01). _ i Family Smoking Habits and the Maintenance of Smoking 3ehavior In order to iavestigata the relationship between parental snoking habits and the maintenance of smoking behavior, students classified as Current, Occasional or Ex-Smokers were assigned, on the basis of the smoking habits of their parents, to one of the following three categories: (a) :2either parent smoked; (b) Mother or Father smoked, but not both; or (c) Both parents smoked. Surprisingly, as can be noted in Table 5, a higher percentage of fe9ales i The relation between th. tenanca of smoking behavior . the 193 female and 88 male S: ences were found in the percu categorized on the basis of t df-4). Since the number of t very small, this group was cc sisters smoked. No signifiu Current. Occasional and Sx-S¢ males who had neither older t Of the 955 college stude cant of the females were claa of the males. In commenting al. (1979) observed: ^Tha ra adult females, and male teena occurring among females in th 95-047 0-82-53

11 :er siblings resulted in highly signifi- (X2.40.3+, df-5, p <.001) and males the percentage of Smokers was higher :e smokers (Columns 4-6), and lower :y) were non-saokers (Colu=ns 1-3). , ~ 4 about here ationship between family smoking habits in the present study, separate 2 x 3_ ith older brothers and/or sisters zrho 2r students with nc older siblicgs who~ ad, students whose older_siblings Smekers,.but parental sacking habits_; moking behavior (females: X2.1.72,__P. st, although students with no older 3a Smokers, these students were more ~ : of SmokinR Behavior :ship between parental smoking habits atudeats classified as Current, n the basis of the smoking habits t'srea categories: (a) Neither - ~ d, but not both; or (c) Both parents Table 3, a higher percentage of fesaSes f i 827 Smoking Behavior 12 whose parents did not smoke were Current Smokers than was the case for students whose parents smoked. As expected, a larger percentage of the males were Cur- rent Smokers if one or both parents smoked than if neither parent smoked. How- ever, when evaluated in 3 x 3 Chi Square analyses, these differences were not statistically significant for either females (X2-5.72, df-4) or males (X2-9.29, df-4). Insert Table 5 about here .The relation between the smoking habits of older siblings and the main- tenance of smoking behavior is presented in Table 6; these data are based on I the 193 female and 88 male Smokers with older siblings. Ho significant differ- ences were found in the percentages of female Current. Occasional and Ex-Smokers categorized an the basis of the smoking habits of their older siblings (Z--3.07, df-4). Since the number of males with older brothers and sisters who smoked was very small, this group was combined with the males whose older brothers or _ sisters smoked. No significant differences were found in the percentages of j Current, Occasional and Ez-Smokers for the combined group as compared with maies who had neither older brothers nor sisters who smoked (%2-4.20, df-2).3 Discussion Of the 955 college students who participated in the present scudy, 49 par- cent of the females were classified as Smokers as compared to only 37 percent of the males. Zn commenting on recent trends in smoking behavior, Evans at a1. (1979) observed: "The rate of smokiag is decreasina among adult males, adult females, and male teenagers with the only increase - a noteable one - occurring among females in their teens and early twenties" (p • 204). Ihus, 0 (.3 ~ 0 on W 0 95-077 0-82-53

828 Smoking Behavior 13 the finding in the present study that the percentage of smokers was significantly higher for females than for males appears to be consistent with recent trends in the smoking babits of young adults. •- - - - :.'T . Positive relationshipe were found as predicted in the present study between the smoking behavior of students and the smoking habits of their parents. If = one or both parents smoked, their sons and daughters were more likely to be smokers than if neither parent smoked. These findings were generally consis- tent with the zesults reported in six previous investigations (Banks at al., 1978; Borland & Rudolph, 1975; Harn at al., 1959; Y.er'si at al., 1970; Palmer, 1970; Salber & YacHahon, 1961). Positive relationships have also been reported for females (Clauson, 1968) and for males (Wohlford, 1970) in tC.ro iadditional studies. Positive relationships were also expected becreen the smoking habits of fathers and sons, and of mothers and daughters, but no evidence of same-ses parental modeling was found. A possible explanation is that the college stu- dents in the present study vere older than the junior and senior high school students in previous studies (Horn at al., 1959; Salber b Mac`*ahon, 1961; 7 ~' Banks at al., 1970) for whom-evidence of-ses-linked modeling of smoking behavior was reported.4 ihus, sea-linked parental modeling may influence some children to begin smoking at an urlier age, but this relationship may be attenuated or masked as the number of smokers increases during the high school and college years due primarily to peer group pressures. Consistent with this interpreta- tion, the Surgeon Ceneral's report on Smoking and Health (1964) has suggested, "...that parents' influence affects the age at which children start smoking much more than it affects the ultimate caking or not caking up of the habir' In the present study, stud were much more likely to be Smo smoke have a (See Table 3). There wa: greater impact on the smc their younger brothers, whereas ence on the smoking behavior of were generally consistent with 3 students with siblings who smoke students whose siblings were non peer group pressures are perhaps initiation of smoking (Eyseack, ; Merki at al., 1970; Palmer, 1970; When the combined effeets oi siblings were evaluated, older sl on the smoking behavior of their, students whose older siblings ver thaa those whose older siblings • seemed to have no added influence (See Table 4). Students with no , were non-smokers, were less 1ika1• were more likely to eake up senkis neither parent smokad. No differences were found in Occasional and Eu-Smokers in the p their older sibliags. Thus, there habits in.fluenu the maintenanG a (p. 370). 1

Smoking Behavior 13 ~ercentage of smokers was significantly :o be-eonsistent with recent trends ia _..._. ._,. -- -... . .. ---.. ~r.~7 ~ redicted in the present study betveen oking habits of their parents. If - daughters were nore likely to be sa findings were generally consis- aus investigations (Banks at al., 1959; Mer'si at al., 1970; Palmer, alationships have also been reported 7ohlford, 1970) in tvo additional _ed between the smoking habits of ' ars, but no evidence of same-sex 31anation is that the college stu- :ha jarsior and senior high school :959; Salber 6 Macmahon, 1961; :ring the high school and college Consistent with this tnterpreta- .a and Eealth (1964) has suggested, at which children start smoking 14 In the present study, students whose older brothers or sisters smoked were much more likely to be Smokers than those whose older siblings did not smoke (See Table 3). There was also some evidence that older sisters may _~ have a greater impact on the smoking behavior of their younger sisters than their younger brothers, whereas older brothers appear to have a similar laflu- ance on the smoking behavior of younger siblings of both sexes. These results were generally consistent with Banks ac al.'s (1978) finding that high school _ students with siblings who smoked were more likely to take up smoking than students whose siblings were non-smokers, and with the mounting evidence that . peer group pressures are perhaps tha single most important influence in the initiation of smoking (Eysenck, 1980; Levitt S Edwards, 1970; Matthews, 1974; 2ierki at al., 1970; Palmer, 1970). When the combined effects of the smoking habits of parents and older siblings were evaluated, older siblings appeared to have a stronger influence on the smoking behavior of their younger siblings than did their parents. The students vhose older siblings were Smokers were more likely to taka up smoking than those whose older siblings vera non-smokers, and parental smoking habits seemed to hava no added influenca on the smoking behavior of these students (See Table 4). Students with no older siblings, or with older siblings who were non-smokers, vere lass likely to be Smokers themselves, but these students were more likely to take up smoking if one or both parents smoked, than if neither parent smoked. No differences were found in the smoking habits of the parents of Cur.ent, Occasional and Fa-Smokers in the present study, nor in the smoking habits of thais older siblings. Thus, chere was little evidence that family smoking habits influence the maiatenance of the students' smoking behavior.

830 Smoking Behavior 15 At the time the data for the present study were collected, the National Institute of Education (NIE, 1979) of the U.S. Department of Health, Education 3. A positive relationship was found bet-aeen the smoking behavior of it was found that the percentage of boys who smoked was higher. 2. The NIE study found that if one or both parents smoked, their children were more likely to smoke, as was the case in the present study. There was also Little evidence of same-sex modeling. For esample: . 1. The data from the NIE study indicated that the percentage of girls who smoked was larger than the percentage of boys, whereas a decade earlier havior of their families and friends. Although no statistical analyses were reported, the findings in the NIE study for high school students were similar in maay respects to those obtained for college students in the present study. and Welfare initiated a major investigation of patterns of teenage smoking. In this study, a sample of 2639 American teenagers were interviewed'by tele- phone to obtain information about their smoking habits and the snoking be- present study that who reported that c parents smoked prow teenagers and the smoking habits of their older siblings similar to the relationship for college students in the present study. 4. When the combined effects of the smoking habits of parents and -4 ~ older siblings were evaluated, older siblings bad a stronger influence on their younger siblings than did their parents. ..n Taken as a whole, the results of the NIE study and the present inves- tigacion indicate that family members influence students to take up smoking. The fact that the smoking behavior of the students is more strongly associated with the smoking habits of their older sib]ings than with parental smoking habits suggests that environmental influences are more important than consti- tutional-genetic factors in the initiacion of smoking. The findings in the

were collected, the National Departaent of Health, Education patterns of teenage smoking. ;ers were interviewed' by tele- habits habits and the saoking be- : no statietical analyses were ;h school students were similar students in the present study. that the percentage of girls -..-~ . - ;ys, whereas a decade earlier j _ aked was higher. :h parents smoked, their case in the present study. 1ing. ieen the saoking bebavior of : siblings similar to the it study. - :ag habits of parents and ud a stronger inflnaace <1 .. .. .. YT ;tudy and the present inves- a students to take up smoking. ants is more strongly associated 3 than with parental smoking ire more important than consti- ;moking. The findings in the 831 16 present study that the percentage of smokers tended to be higher for students vho reported that one parent smoked than for those who reported that both parents smoked provides further support for this interpretation. 4 I

832 Smokiag Behavior 17 Bafereaces - . - :r Banks, M. H., Bewley, B. R., Bland, J. M., Dean, J. it., and Pollard, V. Long term study of smoking by secondary school children. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1978, 53, 12-19. Borland, B. L., and Rudolph, J. P. Relative effects of low socio-economic status, parental smoking and poor scholastic perfo=ance on smoking among high school students. Social Science and Medicine, 1975, 9, 27-30. Clausen, J. A. Adolescent antecedents of cigarette smoking: Data from the Oakland Growth Study. Social Science and Medicine, 1968, 1, 357-382. Evans, R. I., Henderson, A. H., Hill, P. C., and Raines, B. E. Current psycho- logical, social, and educational programs in controltand prevention of smoking: A critical methodological review. Atherosclerosis Reviews, 1979, 6, 203-245. Eyseack, H. J. The Causes and Effects of Scokinst. London: Temple Smith, 1980. Hill,_D. Peer group conformity in adolescent smoking and its relationship to affiliation and autonomy needs. Australian Journal of Psycholo¢c, 1971, 23, 189-199. Horn, D., Coiirts, F. A., Taylor, B. Pt., and Solomon, E. S. Cigarette smoking among high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 1959, 49, 1497-1511. Ikard, F. P., Green, D., and Horn, D. A scale to differentiate between types of smoking as related to the management of affect. International Journal of Addictions, 1969, 4, 649-659. Laoye, J. A., Creswell, W. H., and Stone, D. B. A cohort study of 1205 secondary sehool smokers. Journal of School Health, 1972, 42, 47-52. - Laventhal, H., and Avis, N. Pleasure, addiction, and habit: Factors in verbal report or factors in smoking behavior? Journal of Abnormal Psvcholoay, 1976, 85, 478-488. Leventhal, H., and C theory, and resea: Bulletin, 1980, 81 Levitt, E. E., and Ec in youthful cigare Matarazzo, J. D., a= International Enec 1965. ` ' Matthews, V. L. The in ttrades seven an Medicine, College Mar:d, D. J., Creswel The effects of two behavior. Journal National Institute of pattezns. Washing PaLmer, A. B. Some v. annng juaior high : 359-366. Psychological Aapects on Smoking and Hea: to the Surgeon Cen. Publication No. 11C 359-379. Salber, E. J., and Mac related to social c. Public Health, 1961

cigarette smoking: Data from the nd Medicine, 1968, 1, 357-382. :., and Raines, B. E. Current psycho- .ms in control and prevention of smoking: :rosclerosis Reviews, 1979, 6, 203-245. SmoklnR. London: Temple Smith, 1980. :ent smoking and its relationship to ilian Journal of Psychology, 1971, 23, ad Solomon, E. S. Cigarette smoking louraal of Public Health, 1959, 49, scale to differentiate between types of f affect. International Journal of D. B. A cohort study of 1205 secondary Ith, 1972, 42, 47-52. - diction, and habit: Factors in verbal Journal of Abnormal Psvebologp, 1976, s 1 833 Smoking Behavior is Leventhal, H., and Cleary, P. D. The smoking problem: A review of the research, theory, and research policies in behavioral risk modification. Psychological Bulletin, 1980, 88, 370-405. Levitt, E. E., and Edvards, J. A. A multivariate study of correlative factors in youthful cigarette smoking. Develcnnental ?svcholosv, 1970, 3, 5-11. Matarazzo, J. D., and Matarazzo, R. G. Smoking. In D. L. Sills et al. (Eds.) , International Encvclonedia of the Social Sc'_e::ces. New York: wac-'* Ilan, 1965. Matthews, V. L. The Saskatoon Smoking Stud•r: Habits and beliefs of children in grades seven and eight about smokina. Dept. of Social & Preventative Hedicine, College of ,SedicineS University of Saskatshevan, Saskatoon, 1974. Mnr'r.i, D. J., Cresvell, W. H., Stone, D. B., Huffman, W., and :Iv:man, H. S. The effects of two educational and message themes on rural youth smoking behavior. Journal of School Health, 1970, 38, 448-434. National Institute of Education. Teena¢e smokinz: I-:e=iate and lon2 ter3 patterns. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979. Palmer, A. B. Some variables contributing to the onset of cigarette smoking among juaior high school students. Social Science & Yedicine, 1970, 4, D: 359-366. - - Psychological Aspects of Smoking. In U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health, Smoking and Health: Renort of the .ldvisorv Cormittea to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Serrice. Public Health Ser-rice Publication No. 1103. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1964, 359-379. Salber, E. J., and Nac.Yahon, B. Cigarette smoking among high school students related to social class and parental smoking habits. .lmerican Jou:-ta1 of Public Health, 1961, 51, 1780-1789.

834 Smoking Behavior 20 Footnotes 1. A copy of the SBQ may be obtained by writing to the first author. 2. Approximately two weeks before the end of the term, the students were notified of the dates and times for the feedback sessions and were encouraged to attend. - 3. There was no evidence of a relationship bet-.ieen the combined influence of the smoking habits of parents and older siblings on the maintenance of snoking behavior of the students who participated in this study, as evaluated in 3 x 6 Chi Square analyses similar to those computed for Table 4. 4. Wohlford (1970) reported a positive relationship berleen the smoking habits of fathers and sons for college students, but not for mothers and daughters. It should be noted, however, that this relationship was based on a marginally significant correlation (p<.06) in "cigarette smokiag frequency" for fathers and sons, rather than an evaluation of a correspondence in the pre- valence of smoking behavior. Differences in Wohlford's findings and those of the present study might also reflect changes in the smaking patterns of young adults that have occurred over the past decade. Percentage c S Total Nimter -----~ Smokers Non-Smokers ._ Females (N) ;t Smokers „_ Nan-Smokers Maies (N) Smokers Non-Smokers