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On the Relation Between Family SmoRing Habits and the Smoking Behavior of College Stndents Charles D. Spielberger, Gerard A. Jacobs, Rosario S. Crane and Stephen F. Russell University of South Florida Runaing Head: Family Smoking Habits and Student Smoking Behavior

Abstract This study investigated the relationship between the smoking behavior of college students (603 females; 352 males) and the smoking habits of their parents and older siblings. Students responded to a Smoking Behavior Questionnaire that required them to report whether they were Current Smokers, Occasional Smokers, Ex-Smokers, or Non-Smokers; similar information was obtained about their parents and older siblings. Of the females, 49: were classified as Smokers as compared to only 37S of the males. Students whose parents or older siblings smoked were more likely to bs Smokers themselves; older siblings appeared to have a greater influence on the smoking behavior of younger siblings than did their parents. No differe^.ces were foim d in the smoking habits of the parents or the older siblings of Current, Occa- sional and Ex-Smokers. Contrary to previous iavestigations, there was no evidence of 'same-sea parental modeling of smoking.behavior. On the Relatio: Smoking The controversy on smc in identifying factors that behavior. In reviews of re Wohlford & Giammona, 1969; & Cleary, 1977, 1980), soci habits and peer-group press initiation of smoking, but maintain the smoking habit. Positive relationships smoking behavior of their c Bewley, Bland, Dean, & Poll Horn, Courts, Taylor, & Sol Newman, 1970; Palmer, 1970; one study, which was based to find any relationship be Although an empirical relat: smoking behavior seems firm: tionship reflects environmer Eysenck, 1980). Wohlford (1970) has ea differential impact of the e behavior of their sons and c smoke if their fathers smoke

817 I Smoking Behavior =~ Smoking Behavior 2 On the Relation Between Family Smoking Habits and the Smoking Behavior of College Students bet.reen the smoking behavior of and the smoking habits of their ?onded to a Smokina Behavior t whether they were Current Smokers, 3kers; similar information was alings. Of the females, 49: were 37Z of the males. Students whose a likely cc be Smokers themselves; influence on the smoking behavior 3. No differences were found in 31der siblings of Current, Occa- 3us investigations, there was no smoking.behavior. The controversy on smoking and health has stimulated extensive interest in identifying factors that influence the initiation and maintenance of smoking behavior. In reviews of research in this field (Yatarazzo S;Satarazzo, 1968; Wohl.ford 6 Giammona, 1969; Evans, Henderson, Hill, & Raines, 1979; Leventhal & Cleary, 1977, 1980), social influence variables such as parental smoking habits and peer-group pressures have been repeatedly identified with the initiation of smoking, but relatively little is known about the factors that maintain the smoking habit. z Positive relationships between the smoking habits of parents and the smoking behavior of their children have been reported in eight studies (Baracs, Bewley, Bland, Dean, & Pollard, 1978; Borland & Rudolph, 1975; Clausen, 1968; Horn, Courts, Taylor, 6 Salomon, 1959; Merki, Creswell, Stone, Huffaaa, & Newman, 1970; Palmer, 1970; Salber & Hadsahon, 1961; Wohlford, 1970); only one study, which was based on a very small sample of college students, failed to find any relationship between these variables (Straits & Sechrest, 1963). Although an empirical relationship between parental smoking habits and children's smoking behavior seems firmly established, it is not clear whether chis rela- tionship reflects environmental or constitutional-genetic influences (see Eysenck, 1980). Wohlford (1970) has called attention to the imnortance of examining the differential impact of the smoking habics of fathers and nochers on the smoking behavior of their sons and daughters. Sons were found to be more likely to smoke if their fathers smoked in four studies that examined this relationship 1 11

818 Smoking Behavior 3 (Banks et al.; 1978; Horn et al., 1959; Salber 6:fac-Mahon, 1961; Wohlford, 1970), and daughters were found to be more 1iiely to smoke if their mothers smoked in three of these studies. Since no relationship was found between the smoking habits of fathers and daughters, nor bet•.aeen mothers and sons, same-sex parental modeling appears to have a stronger impact than genetic factors on children's smoking behavior. Peer group pressure is also widely recognized as a primary factor in the initiation of smoking (e.g., Eysenck, 1980; Watarazzo & w.atarazzo, 1968). Evidence of peer-group influence on the initiation of smoking was reported in six studies that investigated this relationship (Banks et al., 1978; Hill, 1971; Levitt & Edwards, 1970; :Satthews, 1974; :!er'.ci et,al., 1970; Palmer, 1970). Leventhal and Cleary (1980) have recently suggested that peers and parents are both important sources of environmental influence in cigarette smoking, and that older siblings may be even more important than other peers in influenc'_ng adolescents to initiate smoking. Consistent with this view, Banks et al. (1978) found that junior and senior high school students whose siblings smoked were more likely to be smokers themselves. Only one published study could be located in which the relationship be- tween family smoking habits and the maintenance of smoking behavior was inves- tigated. Laoye, Creswell and Stone (1972) found that secondary school students who were re ular smokers were more likel to have arents and friends who g p y smoked than students who had been regular smokers but subsequently stopped. The goals of the present study were to investigate the influence of the smoking habits of parents and older siblings on the initiation and maintenance of smoking behavior for college students. on the basis of previous research findings, positive relationships were expected between family smoking habits and the initiation of et fathers and sons,'and mc behavior was investigate smokers. Qn the basis o smokers were expected to older siblings who smake Sub ects The subjects were 9_ level psychology courses was 19 years. All stude: credit for their particiF comprised primarily of fz than 85 percent of the 24 many of them continue to The students were te sisted of 460 students (1 Spring quarters of the 19 students enrolled in intr sample. Sample II consis during the Fall quarter c cent of the students enro: Construction of the Smoki: T13e SBQ is a 50-item information about student:

Smoking Behavior 3 :facYahon, 1961; Wohlford, to smoke if their mothers :ionship was found between between mothers and sons, Dnger impact than genetic A as a pra--zary factor in the ,azzo & xatarazzo, 1968). - n of smoking was reported p (Banks et al., 1978; Hill, ki et al., 1970; Palmer, 1970). ed that peers and parents are in cigarette smoking, and an other peers in influencing * . which the relationship be- ' smoking behavior was inves- =hat secondary school students parents and friends who ° ;7 but subsequently stopped. '' :igate the influence of the a initiation and maintenance ' basis of previous research :reen family smoking habits Smoking Behavior 4 and the initiation of amoking behavior, and between the smoking habits of fathers and sons, and mothers and daughters. The maintenance of smoking behavior was investigated by comparing ex-snokers with current and occasional smokers. On the basis of the findings reported by Laoye et al. (1972), current smokers were expected to be more likely than ex-smokers to have parents and older siblings who smoked. Method Subiects The subjects were 955 undergraduate students enrolled ir. introductory level psychology courses at a large urban state university; the median age 9 was 19 years. All students volunteered to take part in the study and received credit for their participation. The population served by the university is comprised primarily of families of low to average socio-economic status. More than 85 percent of the 24,000 students at the university are commuters, and many of them continue to reside with their parents. The students were tested over a period of ten months. Sample I con- sisted of 460 students (166 males, 294 females) tested during the Winter and Spring quarters of the 1978-79 academic year; approximately 65 percent of the students enrolled in introductory psychology courses were included in this sample. Sample II consisted of 495 students (186 males, 309 females) tested during the Fall quarter of 1979; this sample included approximately 80 per- cent of the students enrolled in introductory psychology courses. Construction of the Smoking Behavior Questionnaire (SBO) The SBQ is a 50-icem self-report questionnaire designed to elicit specific information about students' smokiag behavior and the smoking habits of their

820 .5 families. In constructing the SBQ, a number of questionnaires used to evaluate smoking habits in previous investigations were carefully reviewed (Clausen, 1968; Horn et al., 1959; Ikard, Green & Horn, 1969; Leventhal & Avis, 1976); items from these instruments were adapted for the present study. A preliminary form of the SBQ was administered to 149 undergraduate students (52 males, 97 females) enrolled in introductory psychology courses. In responding to the questionnaire, the students were asked to indicate if they were interested in meeting in smal], groups to discuss reasons why college students start and continue to smoke: Each student was promised $2.00 for - participating in these discussion sessions. A total of 81 students met with z the investigators in small groups of 7 to 10 students. In order to per=it in-depth discussion of the students' reasons for smaking or not smoking, there were separate groups for current smokers (:h27), ex-smokers (N-17), and non-smokers (N-37). The group discussions were audio tape-recorded . On the basis of an analysis of the responses to the preliminary S3Q and a review of the audio tape, the final set of items for the form of the SBQ that was used in the present study were select % The data presented in this study are based on the first part of the questionnaire, which inquired about the smoking habits of the students, their parents, and their older brothers and sisters.l Procedures The SBQ was administered as part of a larger test battery to groups of 20 to 100 students. In order to encourage participation in the study, most of the group-testing sessions were scheduled immediately after the psychology classes from which the students were recruited. At the begianiag of each tasting session, the students were required to read and then sign a Consent Form, whicy in: tary, and woulc were then inst: as possible. i could learn mo; Prior to admin: subjects: Now, turn tc whether you never smokec "Your Self" time to timF to also chec Current, Occ more than o: older broth, In evaluat initiation of s and c^x-Smokers in the statist: habits of parer the students wF treated as sepa students who re

.5 r of questionnaires used to evaluate are carefully reviewed (Clausen, a, 1969; Leventhal & Avis, 1976);_s` or the present study. cistered to 149 undergraduate .., introductory psychology courses. ients were asked to indicate if ., 3ups to discuss reasons why college student was promised $2.00 for A total of 81 students met with . -.~ " . ;;_. ) students. In order to permit . PSS ; for smoking or not smoking, :rs_, ~ ss (:7-27) , ex-smakers (N-17) , ro~ :ns were audio tape-recorded . .~~, )onses to the preliminary S3Q and -~ : items for the form of the SBQ = .cted/ The data presented in this ~ .stionnaire, which inquired about :rents, and their older brotheis% r ts~r'' arger test battery to groups of_Y0. ra ' of icioation in the study, most 4~~ mediataly after the psychology y". 821 Smoking Behavior 6 Form, which informed them that participation in the study was entirely volun- tary, and would consist of responding to several questionnaires. The etudents were then instructed to answer each questior.naire as honestly and accurately as possible. They were also informed that feedback sessions in which they could learn more about the study would be scheduled at the end of the tera.2 Prior to administering the SBQ, the followizg instructions were read to the subjects: Now, turn to the Cigarette Smoking Questionnaire...For Section 1, indicate whether you are a Current Smoker, Occasional Smoker, ax-Smoker, or have never smoked by placing a check in the appropriate space under the column "Your Self". An "b ccasional Smoker" is someone who smokes cigarettes from time to time but not everyday. Whatever your own smoking habits, be sure to also check whether your father, mother or older brother or sister is a Current, Occasional, or Ex-Smoker or has never smoked. (Students with more than one older sibling were asked to provide information about the older brother and/or sister who were the heaviest smokers.) Results In evaluating the relationship between family smoking habits and the initiation of smoking behavior, students classified as Current, Occasional and r".x-Smokers were considered "Smokers", and were treatad as a single group in the statistical analyses. In examining the relation between the smoking habits of parents and older siblings and the maintenance of smoking behavior, the students who were classified as Current, Occasional, and Ex-Smnkars were treated as separate independent groups. In all of the statistical analyses, students who reported they had never smoked were classified as "Non-Smokers".

822 Smoking Behavior 7 Students who indicated they had experimented briefly with cigarettes, but had never become either regular or•accasional smokers were-also included in the Non-Smaker category. The percentages of male and female students classified as Smokers or Non-Smokers in the two samples are reported in Table 1. Since these percen- tages were quite similar, the data for the two samples were combined. For the combined sample, the percentage of female smokers (49'„) was substantially larger than the percentage of male smokers (37Z); the difference between these percen- tages was statistically significant (Y2-12.94, df-1, p<.001). Insert Table 1 about he;e Family Smoking Habits and Students' Smokina Behavior On the basis of the smoking habits of their parents, Smokers and Non- Smokers were assigned to one of the following three categories: (a) Neither parent smoked; (b) Mother or Father smoked, but not both; and (c) Both parents smoked. In Table 2, it can be noted that most students who reported that neither parent smoked were themselves Non-Smokers (females, 64z; males, 717.), and that the percentage of Smokers was higher if mother or father or both parents smoked than if neither parent smoked. In separate 3 x 2 Chi Square analyses, the relationship between parental smoking habics and the students' smoking behavior was statistically significant for females (:C2-11.03, df-2, p <.01), but not for males (%2-3.57, df-2). Insert Table 2 about here In order to c12 and the smoking habi Smokers and Non-Smok in separate 2 x 2 Ch either mother or fat higher percentage of (X--11.33, df-l, p < were themselves Smok the percentage of Sm, (291) who reported t: not for males (35Z) c Surprisingly, tt who reported that onc parents smoked, but t either females (8-.1. for males and femalee sexes were combined a T approached significat If there is aame expected that the per fathers smoked, and a who reported that the of the 414 females wh smoked, 38z were Smok selves Smokers. Sinc approzimateiy the sam

Smoking Behavior 7 -iefly with cigarettes, but mokers were•also included in :s classified as Smokers or Table 1. Since these percen- samples were combined. For the :rs (49S) was substantially larger difference between these percen- r parents, Smokers and Non- hree categories: (a) Neither not both; and (c) Both parents students who reported that rs (females, 645; males, 71L), f mother or father or both In separate 3 x 2 Chi Square icing habits and the students' for females (:&11.03, df-2, iere 823 Smoking Behavior 8 In order to clarify the relationship between students' smoking behavior and the smoking habits of their parents, the percentages of female and male Smokers and Non-Smokers who reported that "Neither Parent Smoked" were compared in separate 2 x 2 Chi Square analyses with the percentages who reported that either mother or father smoked, or that both parents smoked. A significantly higher percentage of the females who reported that mother or father smokad (%2-11.33, df-l, p< .001), or that both oarents smoked (X2-6.75, df-1, p,-.01), were themselves Smokers. For males who reported that mother or father smoked, the percentage of Smokers (44%) was also significantly higher than for males (297.) who reported that neither pareat smoked (%2a3.98, df-1, p<.05), but a not for males (35%) who reported that both Darents smoked (:C2•0.86, df-1). Surprisingly, the percentage of Smokers was slightly higher for students who reported that one parent smoked than for those who reported that both parents smoked, but these differences were not statistically significant for either females (%-'-1.17, df-l) or males (3--1.95, df=1). Since the trends for males and females in this comparison were similar, the data for the two sexes were combined and evaluated in a 2 x 2 Chi Square analysis, which - approached significanca (%2-3.06, df-1, p <.10). If there is same-sex modeling of parental smoking habits, it would be expected that the percentage of smokers would be greater among sons whose fathers smoked, and among daughters whose mothers smoked. Of the 336 females who reported that their mothers smoked, 52% were Smokers, as compared with 51: of the 414 females whose fathers smoked. For the 259 males whose fathers smoked, 38S were Smokers; 39% of the 188 males whose mothers smoked were them- selves Smokers. Since the percentage of females and males who smoked was approximately the same, irrespective of whether their mathers or fathers

824 Smoking Behavior 9 smoked, there appears to be little evidence of same-se= modeling by children of the smoking behavior of their parents. Of the 955 students who participated in the present study, 398 females and 223 males reported that they had older siblings, and 177 females and 80 males reported that they had both older brothers and older sisters. For the students with older siblings, it can be seen in Table 3 that the percentage of Smokers and Non-Smokers was approximately the same as for the total sample (compare colusai 1 in Table 3 with the data for the combined sample in Table 1). Insert Table 3 about here 9 Students with older siblings were assigned to one of the following three categories: (a) Neither older brother nor older sister smoked; (b) Older brother or older sister smoked, but not both; (c) Older brother and older _ sister both smoked. The percentage of Smokers and Non-Smokers in each of these categories is reported in Table 3, in which it may be noted that the percentage of Smokers was highest for students with older brothers and sisters who smoked and lowest for those whose siblings were non-smokers. More than 70Z of the students of both sexes whose older siblings were non-smokers were themselves Non-Smokers. Differences in the percentages of Smokers and Non- Smokers in the three categories were evaluated in 2 x 3 Chi Square analyses, and found to be significant for both females (X'-43.39, df-2, p<.001) and males (%-.9.96, df-2, p <.01). The relationship between students' smoking behavior and the smoking habits of their older siblings was further evaluated in 2 x 2 Chi Square analyses. The percentage of Smokers was significantly higher for students whose older-brothers or si brothers and sisters who s: were non-smokers Column 3 Males, %2•7.86, df 1, P <.( p <.001; Males, %2-5.63, d: in the "brother and sister "brother or sister smoked" significant for either femz In order to evaluate t brothers and older sisters of their younger siblings, students whose older siblin older sisters smoked, the p higher than the percentage whereas the difference in t Smokers for the 231 student (%2-0.73, df-1). Thus, old smoking behavior of their y whereas older brothers appe behavior of younger sibling. In the preceediag anal: influence on the smoking be: parents. The combined infl siblings on the smoking beh. present study is examined i.• percentages of Smokers and :

Smoking Behavior 9 ` same-ses modeling by children . .. _ .-_i' 7-.. " !. .~..- .A^.A,.i he present study, 398 females , lings, and 177 fenales and 80 ; rs and older sisters. For the a Table 3 that the percentage : ie same as for the total sample the combined sample in Table 1). i to one of the following three :r sister smoked; (b) Older :c) Older brother and older and Non-Smokers in each of . _ ..ce -eh it may be noted that the - .3 with older brothers and sisters +ere non-smokers. More than iblings Were non-smokers were _entages of Smakers and Non- _ ia 2 z 3 Chi Square analyses, 2.43.39, df-2, p <.001) and - behavior and the smoking iatad in 2 z 2 Chi Square 'cantly higher for students _s ! 825 Smoking Behavior 10 whose older~brothers or sisters smoked, and for students with both older brothers and sisters who smoked, than for students with older sibl•s.gs who '' wre non-smokers (Column 3 vs. Colimm 2: Females, 7C--30.85, df-l, p< .001; Males, 52-7.86, df 1, p<.Ol; Column 4 vs. Coluts 2: Females, E2-30.39, df-1, p<.001; Males, E2-5.63, df=1, p<.05). I though the percentage of Smokers in the "brother and sister smoked" ca4ego4 was slightly higher than in the "brother or sister smoked" category, this difference was not statistically significant for either females (X-2.71, df-l) or males (82.0.46, df-1). In order to evaluate the possibility that the smoking habits of older brothers and older sisters had differential influence on the smoking behavior a of their younger siblings, the percentage of Smokers and Non-Smokers among students whose older siblings smoked was compared. For the 215 students ehose older sistera smoked, the percentage of female Smokers (66.) was significantly higher than the percentage (46S) of male Smokers (S--8.12, df-l, p<.01), .rhereas the difference in the percentages of female (60S) and male (54.) Smokers for the 231 students whose older brothers smoked was not significant (Z2-0.13, df-1). Thus, older sisters seemed to have a greater impact on the smoking behavior of their younger sisters than on their younger brothers, whereas older brothers appeared to have a similar influence on the smoking behavior of youmger'siblings of both sexes. In the preceeding analyses, older siblings appeared to have a greater influence on the smoking behavior of their younger siblings than did their parents. The combined influence of the smoking habits of parents and older siblings on the smoking behavior of the 955 students who participated in the present study is examined in Table 4. Evaluation of the differences in the percentages of Smokers and aon-Smaksrs for the six smoking categorias defined I`` 94~ ~- f ii

826 Smoking Behavior 11 by the smoking habits of parents and older siblings resulted in highly signif*_- cant 2 x 6 Chi Squares for both females (R2.40.34, df-5, p(.001) and tales (aC -23.19, df-5, p<.001). In general, the percentage of Smokers was higher for students with older siblings who were saokers (Colurms 4-6), and lower for students whose older siblings (if any) were non-s;akers (Colu=s 1-3). whose parents did not smoke whose parents smoked. As ea rent Smakers if one or both ever, when evaluated in 3 x statistically significant fo df-4). Insert Table 4 about here In order to further clarify the relationship between family smoking habits and the smoking behavior of the students in the present study, separate 2 x 3. Chi Squares were computed for students with older brothers and/or sisters who ~ smoked (See Table 4, Columns 4-6), and for students with no older siblings who smoked (Columns 1-3). As previously noted, students whose older siblings _ _ ..~ smoked were more Iikely themselves to be Smokers, but parental smoking habits appeared to have no influence on their smoking behavior (females: %2.1.72, df-1; males: X2-4.28, df-2). In contrast, although students wich no older siblings who smoked were less likely to be Smokers, these students were more likely to smoke if one or both parents smoked than if neither parent sa.oked (females: 22-15.53, df-2, p(.001; males: Z2.8.58, df-2, p<.01). _ i Family Smoking Habits and the Maintenance of Smoking 3ehavior In order to iavestigata the relationship between parental snoking habits and the maintenance of smoking behavior, students classified as Current, Occasional or Ex-Smokers were assigned, on the basis of the smoking habits of their parents, to one of the following three categories: (a) :2either parent smoked; (b) Mother or Father smoked, but not both; or (c) Both parents smoked. Surprisingly, as can be noted in Table 5, a higher percentage of fe9ales i The relation between th. tenanca of smoking behavior . the 193 female and 88 male S: ences were found in the percu categorized on the basis of t df-4). Since the number of t very small, this group was cc sisters smoked. No signifiu Current. Occasional and Sx-S¢ males who had neither older t Of the 955 college stude cant of the females were claa of the males. In commenting al. (1979) observed: ^Tha ra adult females, and male teena occurring among females in th 95-047 0-82-53

11 :er siblings resulted in highly signifi- (X2.40.3+, df-5, p <.001) and males the percentage of Smokers was higher :e smokers (Columns 4-6), and lower :y) were non-saokers (Colu=ns 1-3). , ~ 4 about here ationship between family smoking habits in the present study, separate 2 x 3_ ith older brothers and/or sisters zrho 2r students with nc older siblicgs who~ ad, students whose older_siblings Smekers,.but parental sacking habits_; moking behavior (females: X2.1.72,__P. st, although students with no older 3a Smokers, these students were more ~ : of SmokinR Behavior :ship between parental smoking habits atudeats classified as Current, n the basis of the smoking habits t'srea categories: (a) Neither - ~ d, but not both; or (c) Both parents Table 3, a higher percentage of fesaSes f i 827 Smoking Behavior 12 whose parents did not smoke were Current Smokers than was the case for students whose parents smoked. As expected, a larger percentage of the males were Cur- rent Smokers if one or both parents smoked than if neither parent smoked. How- ever, when evaluated in 3 x 3 Chi Square analyses, these differences were not statistically significant for either females (X2-5.72, df-4) or males (X2-9.29, df-4). Insert Table 5 about here .The relation between the smoking habits of older siblings and the main- tenance of smoking behavior is presented in Table 6; these data are based on I the 193 female and 88 male Smokers with older siblings. Ho significant differ- ences were found in the percentages of female Current. Occasional and Ex-Smokers categorized an the basis of the smoking habits of their older siblings (Z--3.07, df-4). Since the number of males with older brothers and sisters who smoked was very small, this group was combined with the males whose older brothers or _ sisters smoked. No significant differences were found in the percentages of j Current, Occasional and Ez-Smokers for the combined group as compared with maies who had neither older brothers nor sisters who smoked (%2-4.20, df-2).3 Discussion Of the 955 college students who participated in the present scudy, 49 par- cent of the females were classified as Smokers as compared to only 37 percent of the males. Zn commenting on recent trends in smoking behavior, Evans at a1. (1979) observed: "The rate of smokiag is decreasina among adult males, adult females, and male teenagers with the only increase - a noteable one - occurring among females in their teens and early twenties" (p • 204). Ihus, 0 (.3 ~ 0 on W 0 95-077 0-82-53

828 Smoking Behavior 13 the finding in the present study that the percentage of smokers was significantly higher for females than for males appears to be consistent with recent trends in the smoking babits of young adults. •- - - - :.'T . Positive relationshipe were found as predicted in the present study between the smoking behavior of students and the smoking habits of their parents. If = one or both parents smoked, their sons and daughters were more likely to be smokers than if neither parent smoked. These findings were generally consis- tent with the zesults reported in six previous investigations (Banks at al., 1978; Borland & Rudolph, 1975; Harn at al., 1959; Y.er'si at al., 1970; Palmer, 1970; Salber & YacHahon, 1961). Positive relationships have also been reported for females (Clauson, 1968) and for males (Wohlford, 1970) in tC.ro iadditional studies. Positive relationships were also expected becreen the smoking habits of fathers and sons, and of mothers and daughters, but no evidence of same-ses parental modeling was found. A possible explanation is that the college stu- dents in the present study vere older than the junior and senior high school students in previous studies (Horn at al., 1959; Salber b Mac`*ahon, 1961; 7 ~' Banks at al., 1970) for whom-evidence of-ses-linked modeling of smoking behavior was reported.4 ihus, sea-linked parental modeling may influence some children to begin smoking at an urlier age, but this relationship may be attenuated or masked as the number of smokers increases during the high school and college years due primarily to peer group pressures. Consistent with this interpreta- tion, the Surgeon Ceneral's report on Smoking and Health (1964) has suggested, "...that parents' influence affects the age at which children start smoking much more than it affects the ultimate caking or not caking up of the habir' In the present study, stud were much more likely to be Smo smoke have a (See Table 3). There wa: greater impact on the smc their younger brothers, whereas ence on the smoking behavior of were generally consistent with 3 students with siblings who smoke students whose siblings were non peer group pressures are perhaps initiation of smoking (Eyseack, ; Merki at al., 1970; Palmer, 1970; When the combined effeets oi siblings were evaluated, older sl on the smoking behavior of their, students whose older siblings ver thaa those whose older siblings • seemed to have no added influence (See Table 4). Students with no , were non-smokers, were less 1ika1• were more likely to eake up senkis neither parent smokad. No differences were found in Occasional and Eu-Smokers in the p their older sibliags. Thus, there habits in.fluenu the maintenanG a (p. 370). 1

Smoking Behavior 13 ~ercentage of smokers was significantly :o be-eonsistent with recent trends ia _..._. ._,. -- -... . .. ---.. ~r.~7 ~ redicted in the present study betveen oking habits of their parents. If - daughters were nore likely to be sa findings were generally consis- aus investigations (Banks at al., 1959; Mer'si at al., 1970; Palmer, alationships have also been reported 7ohlford, 1970) in tvo additional _ed between the smoking habits of ' ars, but no evidence of same-sex 31anation is that the college stu- :ha jarsior and senior high school :959; Salber 6 Macmahon, 1961; :ring the high school and college Consistent with this tnterpreta- .a and Eealth (1964) has suggested, at which children start smoking 14 In the present study, students whose older brothers or sisters smoked were much more likely to be Smokers than those whose older siblings did not smoke (See Table 3). There was also some evidence that older sisters may _~ have a greater impact on the smoking behavior of their younger sisters than their younger brothers, whereas older brothers appear to have a similar laflu- ance on the smoking behavior of younger siblings of both sexes. These results were generally consistent with Banks ac al.'s (1978) finding that high school _ students with siblings who smoked were more likely to take up smoking than students whose siblings were non-smokers, and with the mounting evidence that . peer group pressures are perhaps tha single most important influence in the initiation of smoking (Eysenck, 1980; Levitt S Edwards, 1970; Matthews, 1974; 2ierki at al., 1970; Palmer, 1970). When the combined effects of the smoking habits of parents and older siblings were evaluated, older siblings appeared to have a stronger influence on the smoking behavior of their younger siblings than did their parents. The students vhose older siblings were Smokers were more likely to taka up smoking than those whose older siblings vera non-smokers, and parental smoking habits seemed to hava no added influenca on the smoking behavior of these students (See Table 4). Students with no older siblings, or with older siblings who were non-smokers, vere lass likely to be Smokers themselves, but these students were more likely to take up smoking if one or both parents smoked, than if neither parent smoked. No differences were found in the smoking habits of the parents of Cur.ent, Occasional and Fa-Smokers in the present study, nor in the smoking habits of thais older siblings. Thus, chere was little evidence that family smoking habits influence the maiatenance of the students' smoking behavior.

830 Smoking Behavior 15 At the time the data for the present study were collected, the National Institute of Education (NIE, 1979) of the U.S. Department of Health, Education 3. A positive relationship was found bet-aeen the smoking behavior of it was found that the percentage of boys who smoked was higher. 2. The NIE study found that if one or both parents smoked, their children were more likely to smoke, as was the case in the present study. There was also Little evidence of same-sex modeling. For esample: . 1. The data from the NIE study indicated that the percentage of girls who smoked was larger than the percentage of boys, whereas a decade earlier havior of their families and friends. Although no statistical analyses were reported, the findings in the NIE study for high school students were similar in maay respects to those obtained for college students in the present study. and Welfare initiated a major investigation of patterns of teenage smoking. In this study, a sample of 2639 American teenagers were interviewed'by tele- phone to obtain information about their smoking habits and the snoking be- present study that who reported that c parents smoked prow teenagers and the smoking habits of their older siblings similar to the relationship for college students in the present study. 4. When the combined effects of the smoking habits of parents and -4 ~ older siblings were evaluated, older siblings bad a stronger influence on their younger siblings than did their parents. ..n Taken as a whole, the results of the NIE study and the present inves- tigacion indicate that family members influence students to take up smoking. The fact that the smoking behavior of the students is more strongly associated with the smoking habits of their older sib]ings than with parental smoking habits suggests that environmental influences are more important than consti- tutional-genetic factors in the initiacion of smoking. The findings in the

were collected, the National Departaent of Health, Education patterns of teenage smoking. ;ers were interviewed' by tele- habits habits and the saoking be- : no statietical analyses were ;h school students were similar students in the present study. that the percentage of girls -..-~ . - ;ys, whereas a decade earlier j _ aked was higher. :h parents smoked, their case in the present study. 1ing. ieen the saoking bebavior of : siblings similar to the it study. - :ag habits of parents and ud a stronger inflnaace <1 .. .. .. YT ;tudy and the present inves- a students to take up smoking. ants is more strongly associated 3 than with parental smoking ire more important than consti- ;moking. The findings in the 831 16 present study that the percentage of smokers tended to be higher for students vho reported that one parent smoked than for those who reported that both parents smoked provides further support for this interpretation. 4 I

832 Smokiag Behavior 17 Bafereaces - . - :r Banks, M. H., Bewley, B. R., Bland, J. M., Dean, J. it., and Pollard, V. Long term study of smoking by secondary school children. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1978, 53, 12-19. Borland, B. L., and Rudolph, J. P. Relative effects of low socio-economic status, parental smoking and poor scholastic perfo=ance on smoking among high school students. Social Science and Medicine, 1975, 9, 27-30. Clausen, J. A. Adolescent antecedents of cigarette smoking: Data from the Oakland Growth Study. Social Science and Medicine, 1968, 1, 357-382. Evans, R. I., Henderson, A. H., Hill, P. C., and Raines, B. E. Current psycho- logical, social, and educational programs in controltand prevention of smoking: A critical methodological review. Atherosclerosis Reviews, 1979, 6, 203-245. Eyseack, H. J. The Causes and Effects of Scokinst. London: Temple Smith, 1980. Hill,_D. Peer group conformity in adolescent smoking and its relationship to affiliation and autonomy needs. Australian Journal of Psycholo¢c, 1971, 23, 189-199. Horn, D., Coiirts, F. A., Taylor, B. Pt., and Solomon, E. S. Cigarette smoking among high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 1959, 49, 1497-1511. Ikard, F. P., Green, D., and Horn, D. A scale to differentiate between types of smoking as related to the management of affect. International Journal of Addictions, 1969, 4, 649-659. Laoye, J. A., Creswell, W. H., and Stone, D. B. A cohort study of 1205 secondary sehool smokers. Journal of School Health, 1972, 42, 47-52. - Laventhal, H., and Avis, N. Pleasure, addiction, and habit: Factors in verbal report or factors in smoking behavior? Journal of Abnormal Psvcholoay, 1976, 85, 478-488. Leventhal, H., and C theory, and resea: Bulletin, 1980, 81 Levitt, E. E., and Ec in youthful cigare Matarazzo, J. D., a= International Enec 1965. ` ' Matthews, V. L. The in ttrades seven an Medicine, College Mar:d, D. J., Creswel The effects of two behavior. Journal National Institute of pattezns. Washing PaLmer, A. B. Some v. annng juaior high : 359-366. Psychological Aapects on Smoking and Hea: to the Surgeon Cen. Publication No. 11C 359-379. Salber, E. J., and Mac related to social c. Public Health, 1961

cigarette smoking: Data from the nd Medicine, 1968, 1, 357-382. :., and Raines, B. E. Current psycho- .ms in control and prevention of smoking: :rosclerosis Reviews, 1979, 6, 203-245. SmoklnR. London: Temple Smith, 1980. :ent smoking and its relationship to ilian Journal of Psychology, 1971, 23, ad Solomon, E. S. Cigarette smoking louraal of Public Health, 1959, 49, scale to differentiate between types of f affect. International Journal of D. B. A cohort study of 1205 secondary Ith, 1972, 42, 47-52. - diction, and habit: Factors in verbal Journal of Abnormal Psvebologp, 1976, s 1 833 Smoking Behavior is Leventhal, H., and Cleary, P. D. The smoking problem: A review of the research, theory, and research policies in behavioral risk modification. Psychological Bulletin, 1980, 88, 370-405. Levitt, E. E., and Edvards, J. A. A multivariate study of correlative factors in youthful cigarette smoking. Develcnnental ?svcholosv, 1970, 3, 5-11. Matarazzo, J. D., and Matarazzo, R. G. Smoking. In D. L. Sills et al. (Eds.) , International Encvclonedia of the Social Sc'_e::ces. New York: wac-'* Ilan, 1965. Matthews, V. L. The Saskatoon Smoking Stud•r: Habits and beliefs of children in grades seven and eight about smokina. Dept. of Social & Preventative Hedicine, College of ,SedicineS University of Saskatshevan, Saskatoon, 1974. Mnr'r.i, D. J., Cresvell, W. H., Stone, D. B., Huffman, W., and :Iv:man, H. S. The effects of two educational and message themes on rural youth smoking behavior. Journal of School Health, 1970, 38, 448-434. National Institute of Education. Teena¢e smokinz: I-:e=iate and lon2 ter3 patterns. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979. Palmer, A. B. Some variables contributing to the onset of cigarette smoking among juaior high school students. Social Science & Yedicine, 1970, 4, D: 359-366. - - Psychological Aspects of Smoking. In U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health, Smoking and Health: Renort of the .ldvisorv Cormittea to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Serrice. Public Health Ser-rice Publication No. 1103. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1964, 359-379. Salber, E. J., and Nac.Yahon, B. Cigarette smoking among high school students related to social class and parental smoking habits. .lmerican Jou:-ta1 of Public Health, 1961, 51, 1780-1789.

834 Smoking Behavior 20 Footnotes 1. A copy of the SBQ may be obtained by writing to the first author. 2. Approximately two weeks before the end of the term, the students were notified of the dates and times for the feedback sessions and were encouraged to attend. - 3. There was no evidence of a relationship bet-.ieen the combined influence of the smoking habits of parents and older siblings on the maintenance of snoking behavior of the students who participated in this study, as evaluated in 3 x 6 Chi Square analyses similar to those computed for Table 4. 4. Wohlford (1970) reported a positive relationship berleen the smoking habits of fathers and sons for college students, but not for mothers and daughters. It should be noted, however, that this relationship was based on a marginally significant correlation (p<.06) in "cigarette smokiag frequency" for fathers and sons, rather than an evaluation of a correspondence in the pre- valence of smoking behavior. Differences in Wohlford's findings and those of the present study might also reflect changes in the smaking patterns of young adults that have occurred over the past decade. Percentage c S Total Nimter -----~ Smokers Non-Smokers ._ Females (N) ;t Smokers „_ Nan-Smokers Maies (N) Smokers Non-Smokers

Smoking Behavior 20 ng to the first author. the term, the students were :.k sessions and were encpuraged =aeen the combined influence of ;s on the maintenance of smoking 'sis study, as evaluated in 3 z 6 ?or Table 4.. =ship between the smoking habits zot for mothers and daughters. zship vas based on a marginally smoking frequency" for a correspondence in the pre- 3hlford's findings and those e in the smoking patterns of iecade. ` ^o: _ ... . _. : 835 Table 1 21 Percentage of Male and Female Smokers and Non-Smokers in Two Samples of Undergraduate College Students Samole I Samole II Combined Samoie Total Number 460 495 955 Smokers 43% - 46: 45. Non-Smokers 57% 54: 55". Females (N) 294 309 603 Smokers 484% 50% 49% Non-Smokers 52S ' 50: 51S Males (N) 166 186 352 Smokers 35% 39: 31: Non-Smokers 65% 61% 63.

836 Smoking Behavior 22 Table 2 Belationship Between Parental Smoking Habits and the Smoking Behavior of College Students = Number Of Sub eets Neither Parent Smoked Mother Or Father Smoked `i'- Both Parents Smoked Females (N) 603 118 219 266 Z Smokers 492 36% 55% 50% 2 Nan-Smokers 51x 64% 45% 501 ttales (N 352 t 66 124 162 f Smokers 37z 29% 44S 35Z Z Non-Smokers 63Z 7LZ 56: 65Z s ` : 3 Fema.les Z Smokers x Non-SmoF Males (P 2 Smokers Z Non-Smok 9

ither :ent oRed Mother Or Father Smoked Both Parents Smoked 118 219 266 36% 55% 50Z 64% 45% 50z 66 ' 124 162 29% 44Z 35% 7iz 56Z 65% 837 Table 3 Relationship Betreen the Smoking Behavior of College Students sad the Smoking Habits of Their Older Siblings Students With Older Siblings Neither Brother iQor Sister Sao!ced Brother Or Sister Smoked Females (N) 398 157 186 s Smokers 48% 29% 59% z Hen-Smokers 52z , 711 41'. Males (Y 223 94 109 Z Smokers 39x 28Z 47Z Z von-Smokera 61Z 72T. 539. Brother And Sister SaoKed 55 71Z 29% 20 55Z 45S 0 ~ ~ ~ .rn W ~ 0

Table 4 Relationship Between the Smoking Nabits of Parents and Older Siblings and the Smoking Behavior of College Students No Older Sibling Smoked 1 Older Brother and/or Sister Smoked Neither One Parent Parent Smoked Smoked Both Neither Parenta Parent Smoked . Smoked One Parent Smoked Both Parents Smoked Females (N) 79 124 160 40 94 106 ; I Smokers 22% 47Z 46Z 65Z 65Z 57Z I Non-Saiokars 782 53Z 54Z 35Z' ', 35Z 43Z r. ( 00 Hales N 46 75 103 21 48 59 Z S.okers 132 372 33Z 621 541 39% ' 2 Non-Smkera 87Z 63% 67Z 38Z 46Z 61Z . t9EB09E0 J 1Students vitb no older siblings and those whose older siblings were non-smokers are Included !n Usis category. I N N N M n C 5 u nR o ~ ` M y L:. N C CA 6 W t, a w a µ O M I t

8 839 Smoking Behavior 24 ~ , ~ . , . . ...- e Y • v ~! Id M .00 a n ~ .t y .. N M y N m N ~Y I H m e Smoking Behavior Table 5 Brlationship between Parental Smoking Habits and the Maintenance of Students' Smoking Behavior 25 Total Mother Number Neither Or Both Of Parent Father Parents Sub ects Smoked Smoked Smoked e =~ Fenales (N) 295 43 119 133 Y • .- .. Z Ex-Smokers 342 21% 38% -- 35:. .°, • ;1 Z Occasional Smokers 26S 26z 28Z ~--25Z m 3 m "-I I Current Smokers 40Z 53Z 34% 40Z ~ ~ Males . 130 19 54 57 .e #e o 0 S Current Smokers 31Z 1.1% - 26x 42T. 0 Z Occasional Smokers 29% 42z _. 19Z re .. • ~ L j Z Ex-Smokers 402 472 39. 39Z ^ n e _3 u N N ~p w1 n .Y .~ m • r S

840 _Tsble 6 26 Selatiocship Betweea the Smoklag flabits of Older Siblings and the Maintenaaee of Students' Smoking Behavior Total Number Of Sub eets Neither Brother Nor Sister Smoked Brother Or Sister Smoked Brother And Sister Smoked 193 46 108 39 43% 37% 48% . :.36I 27% 33% 24% .28z 30% 30S 28% z 36% 88 26 51 11 30% 39S 181. 64% 35% : 42Z 37' 9z 35Z 19I 45x 27% Charles D. Spie: 0 ~ ~ 0 00 W ~ W

Neithar ' Brother Brother Brother Nor Or Aad ter Sister Sister Sm'oker L Smoked Smoked ~ I \~- t'8 39 ~ Oo the Relation Between Family Smokiag Habits aad the Smokiag Behavior of College Students Charles D. Spielberger, Gerard A. Jacobs, Rosario S. Crane ` and Stephen F. &ussell 37Z -: 482 -.- 36Z -~' °:~ A University of South Florida 2 - ~ 33x .