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'_icant Groups effect for the STPI that Current Smokers had lower okers. i higher than ;7on-Smokers on the ticism scales, and Non-Smokers had zese findings were generally con- by other investigators.(Bracken- Powell et al., 1979), this is the for an American sample. .okers and Non-Smokers on the EPQ th sexes, but these differences The findings in the present aes on the Neuroticism and Lie consistent with the results 2 Test 3fanual (Eysenck & Eysenck, aen the STPI scales and the initia- 1e Smokers had hiaher anxiety scores had lower anxiety scores than Non- re consistent with findings reported smokers scored higher in anxiety 1.973; Schneider & Houston, 1970), 1965) conclusion that there are, otic', and 'tense' individuals nkers" (p. 377). The findings Personality & Smoking 10 - in the present study of a positive association between smoking and anxiety for females and a negative association for males points up the importance of taking the sex of the subject into account in an investigation of the relationship between smoking and personality. In evaluating the association between personality and the maintenance of smoking behavior, no significant differences were found for Current, Occas3onal and Ex-Smakers in the overall analyses of the EPQ E, .11 and P scores. However, in the separate analyses for females, the Current Smokers had lower scores on Neuroticism than the Occasional and Ex-Smokers. A similar trend was also found for the males, but this difference was not statistically significant, perhaps due to the fact that the magnitude of a the differences were larger for the females and the male sample was smaller. Female Current Smokers also scored locrer on the STPI Trait Anxiety Scale than Occasional and Ex-Smakers. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that females, who are higher in neuroticism and trait anxiety than males, may take up smoking in order to reduce tension (Eysenck, 1980). The finding that female Current Smokers scored lower on neuraticism and trait curiosity than Occasional and Ex-Smokers further suggests that smoking may be an effective tension reducer for those females who smoke regularly. However, an alternative explanation is that occasional smakers and ex-smokers are higher in neuroticism and trait anxiety before they begin to smoke. A longitudinal prospective study of smoking behavior will be required to evaluate these alternative interpretations of the present findings. An interesting new finding in the present study was that Ex-Smakers of both sexes had higher scores on the ST°I Trait Curiosity Scale than Current and Occasional Smokers. We may speculate that curiosicy is an '

important factor in motivating the Ex-Smoker to take up smoking, and that this motive would be unlikely to stimulate them to continue smoking. Thus, for Ex-Smokers, curiosity may influence the initiation of smoking, but not the maintenance of smoking behavior. The finding must be replicated, how- ever, in order to have confidence in this speculative interpretation. Smokers of both sexes had lower scores on the EPQ Lie Scale (see Table 2), and Occasional Smakers.of both sexes had lower Lie scores than Current and Ex-Smokers (See Table 3). Although the Lie Scale was origin- ally designed to measure the tendency to dissimulate ("fake good"), recent research suggests that low scores on this gcale may be associated with non- critical personality differences between these Occasional Smokers and .N~4 Current Smokers. Moreover, the relationships between personality and the initiation and maintenance of smoking appeared to be somewhat different .._' Of•the 425 students classified as Smokers in the present study, 116 (27S) smoked only "from time to time, but not every day", and there were and may also resist pressure from their peers to be regular smokers. a conforming and rebellious attitudes (Eysenck, 1980). Tb.erefore, the find- ing in the present study that Smokers had lower Lie scores was quite con- sistent with Smith's (1970) observation that smoking was associated with antisocial tendencies in 17 of 19 studies. The fact that Occasional Smokers had lower Lie scores than Current or Ex-Smokers further suggests that Occasional Smokers may take up smoking as a non-conformist behavior, support for Smith's (1970) and :Satarazzo and :iatarazzo's (1965) conclusions Taken as a whole, the results of the present study provide additional for men and women. Thus, it would seem important to distinguish between current and occasional smokers, and to take sex differences into account in future investigations of personality and smoking behavior. that smokers are more ext antisocial tendencies tha: conclusions that can be d: tween smoking and persona: personality factors may it behavior.

Personality & Smoking 11 take up smoking, and that to continue smoking. Thus, iation of smoking, but not g must be replicated, how- ative interpretation. he EPQ Lie Scale (see ad lower Lie scores than the Lie Scale was origin- late ("fake good"), recent may be associated with non- 80). Therefore, the find- Lie scores was quite con- king was associated with fact that 0ceasional Smokers further suggests non-conformist behavior, be regular smokers. n the present study, 116 ary day", and there were ccasional Smokers and tween personality and ad to be somewhac different t to distinguish between 3iffsrences into account ing behavior. t study provide additiona! arazzo's (1965) conclusions 807 Personality & Smoking 12 that smokers are mare extraverted, neurotic and tense, and have stronger antisocial tendencies than non-smokers. Nevertheless, perhaps the main conclusions that can be drawn from this study are that the relation be- tween smoking and personality is exceedingly complex, and that different personality factors may influence the initiation and maintenance of smoking behavior. t

Brackenridge, C. J. and Bloch, S. Smoking in cedical students. Jouraal of ., Psychosomatic Research, 1972, 16, 35-40. Clausen, J. A. Adolescent antecedents of cigarette smoking: Data from the Oakland Growth Study. Social Science and wediciae, 1968, 1, 357-382. Eysenck, H. J. The scientific studv of nersonalitv. London: Routledge and &egan Paul, 195T. Eysenck, H. J. The manual of the Maudslev Personality Inventory. London: IIniversity.of London Press, 1959. Eyseack, H. J. The causes and effects of snoking. London: Temnle Smith, ~ 1980. Eysenck, H. J. and Eysenck, S. B. G. A factorial study of psychoticism as a dimension of personality. ;fultivariate Behavioral Research, Special Issue, 1968, 15-32. Eysenck, H. J. and Eysenck, S. B. G. Manual of the Eysenck Personality_ Questionnaire. London: Hodder and Stou3hton, 1975. Gupta, A. R., Sethi, B. B. and Gupta, S. C. EPI and 16PF observations in smokers. Indian Journal of Psychiatrv, 1976, 18, 252-259. Horn, D., Courts, F. A., Taylor, R. Y. and Solomon, E. S. Cigarette smoking among high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 1959, 49, 1497-1511. Houston, J. P. and Schneider, N. G. Further evidence on smoking and anxiety. Psychological Reaorts, 1973, 32, 322. Ikard, F. F., Green, D. and Horn, D. A scale to differentiate betveen types of smoking as related to the management of affect. Interaational Journal of Addictions, 1969, 4, 649-659. Jacobs, M. A. and Spili amoking in adoles< 1971, 37, 428-432. Janison, H. N. Persona adolescents. IInpc Fanekar, S. and Dolke, logical Reports, 1 Leventhal, H. and Avis, verbal report or f Psychology, 1976,. '•'atarazzo, J. D. and Ma Intetnational Ency Millan, 1965. Povell, G. E. Psychoti Behavior Research - Povell, C. E., Stewart, smokers. British . Schneider, N. G. and Hot Reports, 1970, 26, Smith, G. H. Personalit ture. In: 4J. A. E Chicago: Aldine, 1 Spielberger, C. D. Thec (Ed.), Anxiety and Spielberger, C. D. Aaz: (Ed.), Anxiety: Cc York: Academic Pre

Personality & Smoking 13 ; in medical students. Journal of -40. cigarette smoking: Data from the : and Medicine, 1968, 1, 357-382. ersonalitv. London: Routledge v Personality Inventorv. London: snokin¢. London: Temple Sm].th, .'actorial study of psychoticism as iriate Behavioral Research, Special :ual of the Eysenck Personalit9 Scoughton, 1975. C. EPI and 16PF observations in :r7, 1976, 18, 252-259. sd Solomon, E. S. Cigarette American Journal of Public ther evidence on smoking and 73, 32, 322. scale to differenciate ber,aeen types aeat of affect. Inte:nacional -659. 809 Personality & Smoking 14 Jacobs, M. A. and Spilken, A. Z. Personality patterns associated vith smoking in adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psvchology, 1971, 37, 428-432. Jamison, R. N. Personality, antisocial behavior and risk perception in adolescents. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of London, 1978. Ranekar, S. and Dolke, A. Smoking, extraversion and neuroticism. Psycho- loRical Reports, 1960, 26, 384. Leventhal, H. and Avis, N. Pleasure, addiction, and habit: Factors in verbal report or factors in smoking behavior? Journal of Abnornal Psychology, 1976, 85, 478-488. Matarazzo, J. D. and Matarazzo, R. *. Smoking. In: D. L. Sills et al. International Encyclonedia of the Social Sciences. New York: Mac- Millan, 1965. (Eds.), Powell, G. E. Psychoticism and social devianay in children. Advances in Behavior Research and Therapy, 1977, 1, 27-56. Powell, G. E., Stewart, R. A. and Grylls, D. G. The personality of young smokers. British Journal of Addiction, 1979, 74, 311-315. Schneider, N. G. and Houston, J. P. Smoking and anxiety. Psvcholo¢ical Reports, 1970, 26, 941-942. Smith, G. M. Personality and smoking: A review of the empirical litera- ture. In: W. A. Hunt (Ed.), Learning dechanisms and smokinst. Chicago: Aldine, 1970. Spielberger, C. D. Theory and research an anxiety. In: C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1966. Spielberger, C. D. Aaaiety as an emotional state. In: C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research, Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

810 Personality & Smoking 15 SpieSberger, C. D. Preliminarv manual for the State-Trait Personality Inventory. Tampa, Florida: Human Resources Institute, University of South Florida, 1979. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L. and Lushene, R. E. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1970. Spielberger, C. p., Jacobs, G. A., Crane, R. S. and Russell, S. F. On the relation between family smoking habits and the smoking behavior of college students. International Reviea of Apnlied Psvcholoav, in press. Taylor, J. A. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psvcholo¢y, 1968, 9, 369-376,1 1. The STPI state scales w battery, but will not be cc the present paper is with t traits and smoking behavior 2. A copy of the SBQ may b 95-077 0-82-52

r the State-Trait Personality asources Institute, University shene, R. E. Hanual for the Alto, California: Consulting R. S. and Russell, S. F. On the .ts and the smoking behavior of iev of Acnlied Psvchologv, 811 Footnotes Personality & Smoking 16 1. The STPI state scales were also administered as a part of the test battery, but will not be considered here because the main concern in the present paper is with the association between individual personality traits and smoking behavior. 2. A copy of the SBQ may be obtained by writing to the first author. 0 95-077 0-82-52

Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Analyses of Variance of the Scores of Smokere and Non-Smokers on the Eyaenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Trait Scales of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI) Groups I Sex ANOVA ' Females . Male: Personality F-Ratios Smokers Non-Smokers F-Ratio Smokers Non-Smokers F-Eatio Measures Oroups Sex Int ' N-260 (N-274) N-121 (N-207)

Table 2 Means, Standard Deviatione, and Analyses of Variance of the Scores of Smokers and Non-Smokers on the Eyeenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Trait Scalea of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI) Personality Measures EPQ Extraversion Neuroticfem Peychotlciem Lie Scale *p .05 •*p .01 **Ap .001 Croupe X 8ax ANOVA Females Males F-Ratios Smokers Non-Smokers F-Ratio Smokers Non-Smokers F-Ratio Groups Sex Int N-260 (N-274) N-121 (N-207) 4.50* 1.32 0.75 15.74 14.97 4.13* 15.10 14.81 0.34 4.19 4.57 4.18 4.42 5.41* 32.00*** 2.13 13.12 12.5I' 1.97 11.01 10.44 0.82 4.83 5.24 5.93 5.25 4.97* 38.35*** 1.52 3.48 2.79 12.19*** 4.23 4.08 0.24 2.36 2.19 2.62 2.69 12.81*** 7.98** 1.44 6.45 7.48 10,67*** 5.83 6.68 4.39* 3.47 3.83 3.22 3.71 1.30 10.26*** 4.90** 20.23 19.45 2.52 18.19 19.77 1.01 5.60 5.83 4.84 5.21 0.55 0.18 0.62 19.79 19.46 0.55 19.50 19.41 0.02 5.00 5.23 4.83 4.90 0.12 1.14 1.51 28.93 29.19 0.41 29.12 28.46 1.57 4.57 4.72 4.65 4.48 CO ~ CO

41CE809c0 Table 3 Meane, Standard Deviatione and Analyses of Variance of Scores on the Eyaenck Personality Questionnaire and the State-Trait Pereonallty Inventory for Female and Hale Current Smokere, Occasional Smokers and Ex-Smokere Females Malea Croup X Sax ANOVA Current Occae. Ex- Current Occaa. Ex- .__Pereonality P-Ratios . Smokers Smokere Smokera F-Ratio Smokers Smokers Smokers F-Ratio Measures Croup Sex Int N-102 (N°66) (N-92) N-38 (N-34) (N-49) EPQ Extravereion 1.89 1.56 0.58 16.1 15.6 15.5 0.58 15.9 15.4 14.3 1.73 3.9 4.7 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.3 Neuroticiam 2.25 14.95*** 0.48 12.2 13.5 13.9 3.56* 10.5 11.6 11.0 0.27 5.0 4.3 4.9 5.8 6.6 5.7 Psychoticism 1.47 8.38** 0.13 3.7 3.6 3.1 1.66 4.5 4.1 4.1 0.35 2.4 2.4 2.2 3.1 2.7 2.2 Lie 3.28* 2.57 0.12 6.6 5.7 6.9 2.49 6.1 5.2 6.1 0.82 3.4 3.4 ~ 3.5 3.1 3.1 3.4 STPI Trait Anxiety 2.32 13.28*** 1.73 19.0 21.1 21.0 4.17* 18.4 18.5 17.9 0.20 5.3 5.8 5.6 4.8 4.9 4.9 Trait Anger 0.61 0.36 0.35 19.5 20.0 20.0 0.36 19.3 20.3 19.1 0.66 5.4 5.3 4.3 5.7 4.9 4.0 Trait Curiosity 4.20* 0.11 0.14 28.9 28.0 29.6 2.42 28.8 28.1 30.1 1.89 4.7 4.3 4.6 4.5 4.8 4.6 *p .05 **p .01 **•p .001 R S' m ti e 0 m N 0 p e w r (bo ~ ~ ~ i