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ielberger State-Trait Anxiety ijsc. Ue Poog, 1980, 15, .B. Defares. first and second grade children. Press. (With J. Papay). ate-Trait Curiosity Inventory. In Press. (With R.A. Peters and abits and the smoking behavior of I of Consultin and Clinical de Crane, and S. . Russe tted to: Journal of Personality .'3 795 Journal of Personality Assessment, In Press PERSONALITY A.,iD SMORING BEHAVIOR C. D. Spielberger and G. A. Jacobs University of South Florida RIJNNZYG BEAD: Personality and Smoking 95-077 0-82--51 0 r M 11

This study investigated the relaticnship bet~een selected personality measures and the initiation and maintenance of smoking behavior. The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI) and a Smoking Behavior Questionnaire were administered to 955 students (603 females; 352 males). Smokers had significantly higher scores than Non-Smokers on the EPQ Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism scales, and lower scores on the Lie Scale. Female Smokers had higher STPI Trait Anxiety scores than Non-SmokeFs, whereas male Smokers had lower anxiety scores than :Ion-Smokars. Female Current Smokers had lower Neuroticism and Trait Anxiety scores than Occasional and Ex- Smokers, and Ex-Smokers of both sexes had higher scores on the STPI Trait Curiosity scale than Current and Occasional Smokers. It was con- cluded that the initiation and maintenance of smoking behavior are in- fluenced by different personality factors. that smoking was assoc these findings either c.eaningful conclusions Matarazzo and Mat pretation of the liter "The results, meager a presence of a slightly 'tense' individuais an -(-1965; -p.-3771- The studies publi evidence that smoking dencies (Brackenridge Spilken, 1971). Smoke Eysenck's Psychoticism & Gry11s, 1979), which (Eysenck & Eysenck, 19

Personality & Smoking ; Behavior ship between selected personality :e of smoking behavior. The :he State-Trait Personalitv :estionnaire were administered Smokers had significantly Extraversion, Neuroticism and :he Lie Scale. Female Smokers i Non-Smokers, whereas male Smokers. Female Current Smokers ores than Occasional and Ex- higher scores on the STPI asional Smokers. It was con- of smoking behavior are in- 797 Personality and Smoking Behavior Personality & Smoking 2 The diverse literature on smoking and personality was reviewed by Smith (1970), who observed that smoking was positively associated with the follow- iag personality traits: extraversion (12 of 15 studies); antisocial tenden- cies (17 of 19 studies); and impulsive behavior (6 of 8 studies). Smith concluded that smokers were more extraverted and have more antisocial ten- dencies than non-smokers, and that the evidence is "reasonably convincing" that smokers are also more impulsive. Although there was some evidence that smoking was associated with nearoticism add anxiety, Smith considered these findings either inconsistent or based on too few studies to draw meaningful conclusions. Matarazzo and Matarazzo have offered a somewhat different inter- pretation of the literature on smoking and personality. In their view: "The results, meager and poorly supported as they are, suggest the..... presence of a slightly higher number of 'extravert', and 'neurotic', and 'tense' individuals among the smokers as compared to the non-smokers" The studies published since Smith's (1970) review provide further evidence that smoking is associated with extraversion and antisocial ten- dencies (Brackenridge & B1och, 1972; Ranekar & Dolke, 1970; Jacobs & Spilken, 1971). Smokers also have higher scores than non-smokers on Eysenck's Psychoticism Scale (Jamison, 1978; Powell, 1977; Powell, Stewart, 6 Grylls, 1979), which is assumed to measure impulsive, antisocial behavior (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). In addition, there is growing evidence that smokers are more tense, neurotic and anxious than non-smokers as inferred from higher scores on Eysenck's veuroticism Scale (Brackenridge S Bloc.h,

798 Personality & Smoking 3 1972; Gupta, Sethi, & Gupta, 1975; Powell at al., 1979) and the Taylor (1953) Manifest Anxiety Scale (Houston & Schneider, 1973; Schneider S Houston, 1970), a measure of trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1966, 1972). There are two major difficulties in interpreting the research findings on smoking and personality. First, the definition of 'smokers' and 'non- smokers' has varied from study to study. A second problem is the failure to distinguish between factors that influence people to begin to smoke and that contribute to the maintenance of smoking behavior once it has been established. In evaluating the association between personality and the initiation of smoking, current smokers and ex-smokers should be classified as smokers. In esamining the effects of personality variables on the maintenance of smoking behavior, current smokers an~ ax-smokers must obviously be considered as separate groups. It may also be important to distinguish occasional smokers (e.g., people who smoke from time to time but not every day) from regular smokers, ex-smokers and non-smokers. The primary goal of the present study was to investigate relationships between extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism as measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the initiation and maintenance of smoking behavior for American college students. Although the scales developed by Eyseack and his associates have been widely used in smoking research in England, Australia and India, no studies could be found in which these scales were used to investigate relationships between person- ality and smoking with American subjects. A second goal of this study was to examine the association between smoking behavior and trait anxiety as measured by the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI, Spielberger, 1979). On the basis of score higher than nc Neuroticism and Psyc ported in a number o (see Eysenck, 1980), males and females. Sub ects The subjects we enrolled in introduc university; the medi. take part in the stu< The sample consisted enrolled in iatroduc. Test Instruments The E9senck Pere Eysenclc; 1975), the c developed over the pc 1952; Eysenck, 1959; items. The EPQ yielc Psychoticism (P), the It also includes a Li The State-Trait to measure anxiety, c craits (Spielberger, similar in format and

: a1., 1979) and the Taylor aeider, 1973; Schneider & Spielberger, 1966, 1972). :erpreting the research findings nition of 'smokers' and 'non- second problem is the failure a people to begin to smoke and g behavior once it has been between personality and the z-smokers should be classified sonality variables on the iers and ea-smckers must It may also be important ?le who smoke from time to , as-smokers and non-smokers. as to investigate relationships _icism as measured by the :he initiation and maintenance iencs. Although the scales been widely used in smoking studies could be found in -elationships between person- second goal of this study was :havior and trait anxiety as aorv (STPI, Spielberger, 799 Personality & Smoking 4 On the basis of previous research findings, smokers were expected to score higher than non-smokers in trait anxiety, and on the EPQ Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism scales. Since sex differences have been re- ported in a aumber of previous studies of personality and smoking behavior (see Eysenck, 1980), these relationships will be separately evaluated for males and females. Method Sub ects The subjects were 955 undergraduate students (603 females, 352 males) enrolled in introductory level psychQlogy courses at a large urban state university; the median age was 19 years. These students volunteered to take part in the study and received course credit for their participation. The sample consisted of more than 70 percent of the students who were enrolled in introductory psychology at the time the study was conducted. Test Instruments The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). The EPQ (Eysenck 6 Eysenck; 1975), the most recent form of a series of personality inventories developed over the past 30 years by Eysenck and his colleagues (Eysen dc, 1952; Eysenck, 1959; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968), consists of 90 true-false items. The EPQ yields scares on Extraversion (E), Veuroticism (Y) and Psychoticism (P), the three dimensions of Eysenck's personality theory. It also includes a Lie (L) scale. The State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI). The STPI was developed to measure anxiety, curiosity and anger as emotional states and personality traits (Spielberger, 1979). This 60-item self-report inventory is similar in format and conception to the Stare-Trait Anxiety Invencorv

800 (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970). The three 10-item STPI trait scales require the respondents to report the frequency that they have experienced the specified personality characteristics by rating themselves on the following four-point scale: 1) Almost never; 2) Sometimes; 3) Often; 4) Almost always. Persons with high STPI scores on a particular per- sonality trait are more prone to experience the emotional states associated with that trait than persons with low scores. Although the primary interest in the present study was in trait anxiety, the STPI Trait Curiosity and Trait Anger scales were also administered for exploratory purposes.l The Smoking Behavior Questionnaire (SBQ). The SBQ is a 50-item self- report questionnaire designed to elicit specific information about students' I smoking behavior and the smoking habits of their fami.lies? In constructing the SBQ, a number of questionnaires used to evaluate smoking habits in pre- Taylor, & Solo:an,, vious investigations were carefully revie•aed (Clausen, 1968; Horn, Courts,/ 1959; Ikard, Green & Horn, 1969; Leventhal & Avis, 1976), and some of the items from these instruments were adapted for the present study. laforma- tion about the construction of the SBQ and the relation becween student smoking behavior and family smoking habits is reported by Spielberger, Jacobs, Crane, and Russell (in press). - Procedure In order to encourage and facilitate participation in the study by a large proportion of the students enrolled in introductory psychology courses, the testing sessions were scheduled immediately after the classes from whhirbh the students were recruited. Groups of 20 to 100 students were tested over a 10-month period. At the beginning of each testing session, the students were informed that the purpose of the study was to "learn more about the feelings and attitudes of college students". They were also informed that feedba about the research would students then read and si cipation in the study was pleting several questioffi The test instruments (a) the STPI; (b) the SBQ with standard instruction cigarette smoking habits, Current Smokers, Occasion. instructions defined an "( cigarettes from time to t: defined as someone who ha: with cigarettes, but neve_ "- The percentages of at Smokers, Occasional Smoke: Table 1. Current Smokers, fied as Smokers in detera reported in Table 1. Inse: Personalitv and the Initiz In evaluating the ass the initiation of smoking,

Personality & Smoking 5 ihe three 10-item STPI trait ze frequency that they have - acteristics by rating themselves ~st never; 2) Sometiaes; 3) Often; acores on a particular per- a the emotional states associated as. Although the primary interest the STPI Trait Curiosity and for exploratory purposes.1 L(Z) . The SBQ is a 50-item self- acific information about students' their families? In constructing a evaluate smoking habits in pre- Taylor, 6 Solom ed (Clausen, 1968; Horn, Courts,/ & Avis, 1976), and some of the for the present study. Iaforma- d the relation between student is reported by Spielberger, participation in the study by a in introductory psychology .ed immediately after the classes 'roups of 20 to 100 students were inning of eac:z testing session, e of the study was to "learn :ollege students". They were W 801 Personality 6 Smoking 6 also informed that feedback sessions to provide additional information about the research would be echeduled near the end of the term. The students then read and signed a Consent Form, advising them that parti- cipation in the study was entirely voluntary, and would consist of com- pleting several questionnaires. The test instruments were administered in the following order: (a) the STPI; (b) the SBQ; (c) the EPQ. The STPI and the EPQ were given with standard instructions. On the SBQ, which inquired about past and present cigarette smoking habits, students were asked to report whether they were Current Smokers, Occasional Smokers, Ex-Smokers or Non-Smokers. The - instructions defined an "Occasionaj Smoker" as: "Someone who smokes cigarettes from time to time but not everyday." A'^Ion-Smoker" was defined as someone who had never smoked, or had only experimented briefly with cigarettes, but never became a regular or Occasional Smoker. Results The percentages of students who indicated that they were Current Smokers, Occasional Smokers, Ex-Smokers or Non-Smokers are reported in Table 1. Current Smokers, Occasional Smokers and Ex-Smokers were classi- fied as Smokers in determining the percentage of female and male "Smokers" reported in Table 1. Insert Table 1 about here Personality and the Initiation of Smoking Behavior In evaluating the association between the personality measures and the initiation of smoking, the scores of Smokers and Non-Smokers on the I 0

802 Personality & Smoking 7 EPQ and the STPI scales were compared. The means and standard deviations for each EPQ and STPI scale are reported in Table 2. These data were evaluated in separate 2 a 2 factorial analyses of variance in which Groups (Smokers vs. Non-Smokers) and Sex were the independent variables; the results of these analyses are also reported in Table 2. Insert Table 2 about here The significant Groups main effects for all four EPQ scales indicated that Smokers had higher scores than Non-Smokers on Extraversion, aeuro- ticism and Psychoticism, and lower Lie scale scores. The significant 1 Sex main effects for the EPQ Neuroticism, Psychoticism and Lie scales reflected the fact that the females scored higher than the males on the Neuroticism and Lie scales, and lower on Psychoticism. None of the Groups by Sex interactions were significant for any of the EPQ scales. While the differences on the EPQ scales were in the same direction for both sexes, these differences were larger in magnitude for the females, _,f except for Neuroticism on which comparable differences were found. In the separate analyses for each sex, the female Smokers scored significantly higher than Non-Smokers on Psychoticism and Eatraversion, and sianifi- cantly lower on the EPQ Lie scale. Male Smokers also had significantly lower Lie scale scores than Non-Smokers. For the STPI scales, the only statistically significant differences were the Sex main effect and the Groups by Sex interaction for traic anxiety. These findings reflected the fact that fema.Ies had higher anxiety scores than males, and that female Smokers had higher anxiety scores than Non-Smokers, whereas male Smokers had lower anxiety scores than Non-Smokers. No a, in the separate analysee Personality and the Naii The mean EPQ and S: and Ex-Smokers are repor ance of smoking behavioz 3 a 2 factorial analyses and Ex-Smokers) and Sex analyses are also report arate analyses of the dE There were no stati overall analyses of the the Neuroticism aad Psyc on N and lower on P that Occasional Smokers of bc Current and Ea-Smokers, separate analyses for fe scores than the Occasion In the analyses of significant Groups effec Fx-Smokers of both seaes and Occasional Smokers. Trait Anxiety, which iac this scale than males, e

)2 Personality & Smoking 7 The means and standard deviations i- in Table 2. These data were zalyses of variance in which x were the independent variables; :eported in Table 2. - jut here s for all four EPQ scales indicated -Smokers on Extraversion, Neuro- 3cale scores. The significant i, Psychoticism and Lie scales :ed higher than the males on the i Psychoticism. None of the Groups : any of the EPQ scales. :ales were in the same direction _arger in magnitude for the females, ile differences were found. In the ile Smokers scored significantly and Extraversion, and signifi- a Smokers also had significantly .stically significant differences by Sex interaction for trait `act that females had higher .le Smokers had higher anxiety .okers had lower anxiety scores 803 Personality & Smoking 8 than Non-Smokers. No significant differences were found for either sex in the separate analyses of the STPI scales. Personality and the Maintenar.ce of Smoking Behavior The mean EPQ and STPI scores of the female and male Current, Occasional and Ex-Smokers are reported in Table 3. Associations between the mainten- ance of smoking behavior and each personality measure were evaluated in 3 x 2 factorial analyses of variance in which Groups (Current, Occasional and Ex-Smokers) and Sex were the independent variables. Summaries of these analyses are also reported in Table 3, along with the findings in the sep- arate analyses of the data for female and male students. t Insert Table 3 about here There were no statistically significant Group differences in the overall analyses of the EPQ scores, but sex main effects were found for the Neuroticism and Psychoticism measures. The females scored higher on N and lower on P than males, as was noted in the preceding analyses. Occasional Smokers of both sexes also had lower Lie scores than the Current and Ex-Smokers, who were quite similar on this scale. In the separate analyses for females, the Current Smokers had lower Veuroticism scores than the Occasional and Ex-Smokers. In the analyses of the data for the STPI scales, the statistically significant Groups effect for Trait Curiosity reflected the finding that Hz-Smokers of both sexes had higher scores on this measure than Current and Occasional Smokers. A significant Sex main effect was also found for Trait Anxiety, which indicated that females had higher anxiety scores on this scale than males, as was noted in the preceding analyses. In the

separate analyses for females, the significant Groups effect for the STPI trait anxiety measure reflected the fact that Current Smokers had lower anxiety scores than Occasional and Ex-Smokers. - Discussion In the present study, Smokers scored higher than Non-Smokers on the EPQ Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism scales, and Non-Smokers had higher Lie scores than Smokers. While these findings were generally con- sistent with results previously reported by other iavestigators,(Bracken- ridge & Bloch, 1972; Gupta et al., 1975; Powell et al., 1979), this is the first study to obtain such relationships for an American sample. The differences observed between Smokers and Non-Smokers on the EPQ scales were in the same direction for both sexes, but these differences were larger in magnitude for the females. The findings in the preseat study that females scored higher than males on the Neuroticism and Lie scales, and lower on Psychoticism, were consistent with the results reported for British subjects in the EPQ Test Manual (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). In evaluating the association between the STPI scales and the initia- tion of smoking, it was found that female Smokers had higher anxiety scores than Non-Smokers, whereas male Smokers had lower anxiety scores than Noa- Smokers. The results for the females are consistent with findings reported " by several previous investigators that smokers scored higher in anxiety than non-smokers (Houston & Schneider, 1973; Schneider & Houston, 1970), and support Matarazzo and Matarazzo's (1965) conclusion that there are, "...a slightly higher number of...'neurotic', and 'tense' individuals among smokers as compared to the non-smokers" (p. 377). The findings in the present study of a :or females and a negative of taking the sex of the e relationship betweea.smoki In evaluating the ass of smoking behavior, no si Occasional and Ex-Smokers scores. However, in the s Smokers had lower scores o A similar trend was also f statistically significant, the differences were large Female Current Smokers als, than Occasional and Ex-Smo; Taken together, the v who are higher in neurotic: smoking in order to reduce female Current Smakers.sco: than Occasional and ErSmoi effective tension reducer : an alternative explanation higher in neuroticism and t longitudinal prospective st evaluate these alternative An interesting new fii of both sexes had higher s, Current and Occasional Ssno:

'_icant Groups effect for the STPI that Current Smokers had lower okers. i higher than ;7on-Smokers on the ticism scales, and Non-Smokers had zese findings were generally con- by other investigators.(Bracken- Powell et al., 1979), this is the for an American sample. .okers and Non-Smokers on the EPQ th sexes, but these differences The findings in the present aes on the Neuroticism and Lie consistent with the results 2 Test 3fanual (Eysenck & Eysenck, aen the STPI scales and the initia- 1e Smokers had hiaher anxiety scores had lower anxiety scores than Non- re consistent with findings reported smokers scored higher in anxiety 1.973; Schneider & Houston, 1970), 1965) conclusion that there are, otic', and 'tense' individuals nkers" (p. 377). The findings Personality & Smoking 10 - in the present study of a positive association between smoking and anxiety for females and a negative association for males points up the importance of taking the sex of the subject into account in an investigation of the relationship between smoking and personality. In evaluating the association between personality and the maintenance of smoking behavior, no significant differences were found for Current, Occas3onal and Ex-Smakers in the overall analyses of the EPQ E, .11 and P scores. However, in the separate analyses for females, the Current Smokers had lower scores on Neuroticism than the Occasional and Ex-Smokers. A similar trend was also found for the males, but this difference was not statistically significant, perhaps due to the fact that the magnitude of a the differences were larger for the females and the male sample was smaller. Female Current Smokers also scored locrer on the STPI Trait Anxiety Scale than Occasional and Ex-Smakers. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that females, who are higher in neuroticism and trait anxiety than males, may take up smoking in order to reduce tension (Eysenck, 1980). The finding that female Current Smokers scored lower on neuraticism and trait curiosity than Occasional and Ex-Smokers further suggests that smoking may be an effective tension reducer for those females who smoke regularly. However, an alternative explanation is that occasional smakers and ex-smokers are higher in neuroticism and trait anxiety before they begin to smoke. A longitudinal prospective study of smoking behavior will be required to evaluate these alternative interpretations of the present findings. An interesting new finding in the present study was that Ex-Smakers of both sexes had higher scores on the ST°I Trait Curiosity Scale than Current and Occasional Smokers. We may speculate that curiosicy is an '

important factor in motivating the Ex-Smoker to take up smoking, and that this motive would be unlikely to stimulate them to continue smoking. Thus, for Ex-Smokers, curiosity may influence the initiation of smoking, but not the maintenance of smoking behavior. The finding must be replicated, how- ever, in order to have confidence in this speculative interpretation. Smokers of both sexes had lower scores on the EPQ Lie Scale (see Table 2), and Occasional Smakers.of both sexes had lower Lie scores than Current and Ex-Smokers (See Table 3). Although the Lie Scale was origin- ally designed to measure the tendency to dissimulate ("fake good"), recent research suggests that low scores on this gcale may be associated with non- critical personality differences between these Occasional Smokers and .N~4 Current Smokers. Moreover, the relationships between personality and the initiation and maintenance of smoking appeared to be somewhat different .._' Of•the 425 students classified as Smokers in the present study, 116 (27S) smoked only "from time to time, but not every day", and there were and may also resist pressure from their peers to be regular smokers. a conforming and rebellious attitudes (Eysenck, 1980). Tb.erefore, the find- ing in the present study that Smokers had lower Lie scores was quite con- sistent with Smith's (1970) observation that smoking was associated with antisocial tendencies in 17 of 19 studies. The fact that Occasional Smokers had lower Lie scores than Current or Ex-Smokers further suggests that Occasional Smokers may take up smoking as a non-conformist behavior, support for Smith's (1970) and :Satarazzo and :iatarazzo's (1965) conclusions Taken as a whole, the results of the present study provide additional for men and women. Thus, it would seem important to distinguish between current and occasional smokers, and to take sex differences into account in future investigations of personality and smoking behavior. that smokers are more ext antisocial tendencies tha: conclusions that can be d: tween smoking and persona: personality factors may it behavior.

Personality & Smoking 11 take up smoking, and that to continue smoking. Thus, iation of smoking, but not g must be replicated, how- ative interpretation. he EPQ Lie Scale (see ad lower Lie scores than the Lie Scale was origin- late ("fake good"), recent may be associated with non- 80). Therefore, the find- Lie scores was quite con- king was associated with fact that 0ceasional Smokers further suggests non-conformist behavior, be regular smokers. n the present study, 116 ary day", and there were ccasional Smokers and tween personality and ad to be somewhac different t to distinguish between 3iffsrences into account ing behavior. t study provide additiona! arazzo's (1965) conclusions 807 Personality & Smoking 12 that smokers are mare extraverted, neurotic and tense, and have stronger antisocial tendencies than non-smokers. Nevertheless, perhaps the main conclusions that can be drawn from this study are that the relation be- tween smoking and personality is exceedingly complex, and that different personality factors may influence the initiation and maintenance of smoking behavior. t

Brackenridge, C. J. and Bloch, S. Smoking in cedical students. Jouraal of ., Psychosomatic Research, 1972, 16, 35-40. Clausen, J. A. Adolescent antecedents of cigarette smoking: Data from the Oakland Growth Study. Social Science and wediciae, 1968, 1, 357-382. Eysenck, H. J. The scientific studv of nersonalitv. London: Routledge and &egan Paul, 195T. Eysenck, H. J. The manual of the Maudslev Personality Inventory. London: IIniversity.of London Press, 1959. Eyseack, H. J. The causes and effects of snoking. London: Temnle Smith, ~ 1980. Eysenck, H. J. and Eysenck, S. B. G. A factorial study of psychoticism as a dimension of personality. ;fultivariate Behavioral Research, Special Issue, 1968, 15-32. Eysenck, H. J. and Eysenck, S. B. G. Manual of the Eysenck Personality_ Questionnaire. London: Hodder and Stou3hton, 1975. Gupta, A. R., Sethi, B. B. and Gupta, S. C. EPI and 16PF observations in smokers. Indian Journal of Psychiatrv, 1976, 18, 252-259. Horn, D., Courts, F. A., Taylor, R. Y. and Solomon, E. S. Cigarette smoking among high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 1959, 49, 1497-1511. Houston, J. P. and Schneider, N. G. Further evidence on smoking and anxiety. Psychological Reaorts, 1973, 32, 322. Ikard, F. F., Green, D. and Horn, D. A scale to differentiate betveen types of smoking as related to the management of affect. Interaational Journal of Addictions, 1969, 4, 649-659. Jacobs, M. A. and Spili amoking in adoles< 1971, 37, 428-432. Janison, H. N. Persona adolescents. IInpc Fanekar, S. and Dolke, logical Reports, 1 Leventhal, H. and Avis, verbal report or f Psychology, 1976,. '•'atarazzo, J. D. and Ma Intetnational Ency Millan, 1965. Povell, G. E. Psychoti Behavior Research - Povell, C. E., Stewart, smokers. British . Schneider, N. G. and Hot Reports, 1970, 26, Smith, G. H. Personalit ture. In: 4J. A. E Chicago: Aldine, 1 Spielberger, C. D. Thec (Ed.), Anxiety and Spielberger, C. D. Aaz: (Ed.), Anxiety: Cc York: Academic Pre

Personality & Smoking 13 ; in medical students. Journal of -40. cigarette smoking: Data from the : and Medicine, 1968, 1, 357-382. ersonalitv. London: Routledge v Personality Inventorv. London: snokin¢. London: Temple Sm].th, .'actorial study of psychoticism as iriate Behavioral Research, Special :ual of the Eysenck Personalit9 Scoughton, 1975. C. EPI and 16PF observations in :r7, 1976, 18, 252-259. sd Solomon, E. S. Cigarette American Journal of Public ther evidence on smoking and 73, 32, 322. scale to differenciate ber,aeen types aeat of affect. Inte:nacional -659. 809 Personality & Smoking 14 Jacobs, M. A. and Spilken, A. Z. Personality patterns associated vith smoking in adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psvchology, 1971, 37, 428-432. Jamison, R. N. Personality, antisocial behavior and risk perception in adolescents. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of London, 1978. Ranekar, S. and Dolke, A. Smoking, extraversion and neuroticism. Psycho- loRical Reports, 1960, 26, 384. Leventhal, H. and Avis, N. Pleasure, addiction, and habit: Factors in verbal report or factors in smoking behavior? Journal of Abnornal Psychology, 1976, 85, 478-488. Matarazzo, J. D. and Matarazzo, R. *. Smoking. In: D. L. Sills et al. International Encyclonedia of the Social Sciences. New York: Mac- Millan, 1965. (Eds.), Powell, G. E. Psychoticism and social devianay in children. Advances in Behavior Research and Therapy, 1977, 1, 27-56. Powell, G. E., Stewart, R. A. and Grylls, D. G. The personality of young smokers. British Journal of Addiction, 1979, 74, 311-315. Schneider, N. G. and Houston, J. P. Smoking and anxiety. Psvcholo¢ical Reports, 1970, 26, 941-942. Smith, G. M. Personality and smoking: A review of the empirical litera- ture. In: W. A. Hunt (Ed.), Learning dechanisms and smokinst. Chicago: Aldine, 1970. Spielberger, C. D. Theory and research an anxiety. In: C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1966. Spielberger, C. D. Aaaiety as an emotional state. In: C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research, Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

810 Personality & Smoking 15 SpieSberger, C. D. Preliminarv manual for the State-Trait Personality Inventory. Tampa, Florida: Human Resources Institute, University of South Florida, 1979. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L. and Lushene, R. E. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1970. Spielberger, C. p., Jacobs, G. A., Crane, R. S. and Russell, S. F. On the relation between family smoking habits and the smoking behavior of college students. International Reviea of Apnlied Psvcholoav, in press. Taylor, J. A. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psvcholo¢y, 1968, 9, 369-376,1 1. The STPI state scales w battery, but will not be cc the present paper is with t traits and smoking behavior 2. A copy of the SBQ may b 95-077 0-82-52

r the State-Trait Personality asources Institute, University shene, R. E. Hanual for the Alto, California: Consulting R. S. and Russell, S. F. On the .ts and the smoking behavior of iev of Acnlied Psvchologv, 811 Footnotes Personality & Smoking 16 1. The STPI state scales were also administered as a part of the test battery, but will not be considered here because the main concern in the present paper is with the association between individual personality traits and smoking behavior. 2. A copy of the SBQ may be obtained by writing to the first author. 0 95-077 0-82-52

Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Analyses of Variance of the Scores of Smokere and Non-Smokers on the Eyaenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Trait Scales of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI) Groups I Sex ANOVA ' Females . Male: Personality F-Ratios Smokers Non-Smokers F-Ratio Smokers Non-Smokers F-Eatio Measures Oroups Sex Int ' N-260 (N-274) N-121 (N-207)

Table 2 Means, Standard Deviatione, and Analyses of Variance of the Scores of Smokers and Non-Smokers on the Eyeenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Trait Scalea of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI) Personality Measures EPQ Extraversion Neuroticfem Peychotlciem Lie Scale *p .05 •*p .01 **Ap .001 Croupe X 8ax ANOVA Females Males F-Ratios Smokers Non-Smokers F-Ratio Smokers Non-Smokers F-Ratio Groups Sex Int N-260 (N-274) N-121 (N-207) 4.50* 1.32 0.75 15.74 14.97 4.13* 15.10 14.81 0.34 4.19 4.57 4.18 4.42 5.41* 32.00*** 2.13 13.12 12.5I' 1.97 11.01 10.44 0.82 4.83 5.24 5.93 5.25 4.97* 38.35*** 1.52 3.48 2.79 12.19*** 4.23 4.08 0.24 2.36 2.19 2.62 2.69 12.81*** 7.98** 1.44 6.45 7.48 10,67*** 5.83 6.68 4.39* 3.47 3.83 3.22 3.71 1.30 10.26*** 4.90** 20.23 19.45 2.52 18.19 19.77 1.01 5.60 5.83 4.84 5.21 0.55 0.18 0.62 19.79 19.46 0.55 19.50 19.41 0.02 5.00 5.23 4.83 4.90 0.12 1.14 1.51 28.93 29.19 0.41 29.12 28.46 1.57 4.57 4.72 4.65 4.48 CO ~ CO

41CE809c0 Table 3 Meane, Standard Deviatione and Analyses of Variance of Scores on the Eyaenck Personality Questionnaire and the State-Trait Pereonallty Inventory for Female and Hale Current Smokere, Occasional Smokers and Ex-Smokere Females Malea Croup X Sax ANOVA Current Occae. Ex- Current Occaa. Ex- .__Pereonality P-Ratios . Smokers Smokere Smokera F-Ratio Smokers Smokers Smokers F-Ratio Measures Croup Sex Int N-102 (N°66) (N-92) N-38 (N-34) (N-49) EPQ Extravereion 1.89 1.56 0.58 16.1 15.6 15.5 0.58 15.9 15.4 14.3 1.73 3.9 4.7 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.3 Neuroticiam 2.25 14.95*** 0.48 12.2 13.5 13.9 3.56* 10.5 11.6 11.0 0.27 5.0 4.3 4.9 5.8 6.6 5.7 Psychoticism 1.47 8.38** 0.13 3.7 3.6 3.1 1.66 4.5 4.1 4.1 0.35 2.4 2.4 2.2 3.1 2.7 2.2 Lie 3.28* 2.57 0.12 6.6 5.7 6.9 2.49 6.1 5.2 6.1 0.82 3.4 3.4 ~ 3.5 3.1 3.1 3.4 STPI Trait Anxiety 2.32 13.28*** 1.73 19.0 21.1 21.0 4.17* 18.4 18.5 17.9 0.20 5.3 5.8 5.6 4.8 4.9 4.9 Trait Anger 0.61 0.36 0.35 19.5 20.0 20.0 0.36 19.3 20.3 19.1 0.66 5.4 5.3 4.3 5.7 4.9 4.0 Trait Curiosity 4.20* 0.11 0.14 28.9 28.0 29.6 2.42 28.8 28.1 30.1 1.89 4.7 4.3 4.6 4.5 4.8 4.6 *p .05 **p .01 **•p .001 R S' m ti e 0 m N 0 p e w r (bo ~ ~ ~ i