Anne Landman's Collection
Project Application Patterns of Legal Substance Use in Adults
Abstract
In this application for funding, Professor David M. Warburton of the University of Reading in the United Kingdom asks Philip Morris for £32,000 to perform a study on the human use of legal substances (like alcohol, caffeine, chocolate, food, tea, tobacco). Warburton believed the outcome of the study would "show that it is the total abstainer from substance use who is abnormal." Philip Morris had previously funded Warburton from 1991-93 in the amount of $250,000 (see the budgets in document Bates Nos. 2023160927 & 2023160930/0931). Warburton also organized and implemented the tobacco industry-funded front group ARISE ("Associates for Research in Substance Enjoyment"), which toured Europe between 1988 and 1997 touting that smoking was good for people and actually boosted immunity because it relieved stress and people enjoyed it.
In 2001 Professor Warburton released a study showing that people are intimidated by television chefs, who elevate pressure on regular people to produce excellent dishes at dinner parties. These fears were causing a new syndrome to emerge that Professor Warburton called "Kitchen Performance Anxiety" (KPA). The physical symptoms of KPA, according to Warburton, included mental blocks during cooking, a rapid heart rate, difficulty in breathing, nausea, and headaches. Warburton concluded that KPA was causing fewer people to hold dinner parties. BBC did a news report on KPA that highlighted the following comment from Prof. Warburton: "It is interesting that many guests don't expect perfect food and would prefer that their host or hostess concentrated on good company and wine."
Not coincidentally, Warburton's study was commissioned by the makers of the wine Piat d'Or wine. (http://www.piatdor.com/). See the BBC report on KPA at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/1709429.stm
Fields
- Quotes
The aim or our research will be to related the person's substance use to their attempts to control their psychological state (i.e., affect management). The aim will be to analyse the positive contribution of pleasure to mood as well as the control of the negative states which are produced by the challenges of everyday life.
Evidence from the use of single substances suggest that substance use is a strategy by which individuals maintain their biochemical state and so their psychological states in optimal balance...
...The emphasis of the project will be against stereotyping users as "deviant". On the contrary, it is believed that the analysys will show that it is the total abstainer from substance use who is abnormal.
...Thus, smoking is an activity with many important psychological benefits in everyday life. It is not an irrational behavior, but the behaviour is adopted because it enables the user to cope effectively and so enhance their life, at a personal and interpersonal level. It can be seen as a psycholocial resource that the individual uses smoking to control their psychological state. (Warburton, 1987; Warburton, 1988; Warburton, et al, 1988).
MOTIVATIONS FOR CHOCOLOATE USE
Almost no work has been done on chocolate use, although there has been some speculation in the popular magazines on its "addictive" properties. Our own work suggests that calmness and happiness increase after three or four pieces of chocolate...
- Company
- Philip Morris
- Author
- Warburton, David M. Dr. (Psychopharmacologist, University of Reading, UK)Director of Human Psychopharmacology group at University of Reading in the United Kingdom, Dr. Warburton published a paper "The Functions of Pleasure" which grouped tobacco with chocolate, coffee and food as substances which "give us pleasure and enhance the quality of our lives." He founded the tobacco-industry funded group ARISE (Associates for Research in Substance Enjoyment, later changed to the "Science of Enjoyment"). ARISE was also funded by breweries, distilleries and a food company.
- Recipient
- Presumed corporate recipient, Philip Morris
Document Images
13-12-93 12:19I
344 P02
PROJECT APPLICATTON
SHORT TITLE: Patterns of Legal Substance Use in Adults
APPLICANT: Professor David M. Warburton, C.Psychol.
ADMINISTERING AUTHORITY: Finance Office, University of Reading,
Reading, RG6 2AH, United Kingdom.
LOCATION OF PROJECT: Human Psychopharmacology Group, Department
of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 2AL, United
Kingdom.
ABSTRACT OF RESEARCH:
The goal of our research will be to relate the person's substance
use to their attempts to control their psychological state (i.e.
affect management). The aim will be to analyse the positive
contribution of pleasure to mood as well as the control of
negative states. Our focus will be on legally used substance,
(alcohol, caffeine, chocolate, food, tea, tobacco, and including
over-the-counter medication), and examine the processes
underlying the use of substances.
Data will be collected by survey and will be carried out to
determine the patterns of use and motive for use, both positive
and negative. In addition, information will be collected on
personality variables, attitudes to health, other methods of
coping.
PROPOSED STARTING DATE: Early January, 1994
PROPOSED DURATION: Initial Phase - 3 months; Phase 2 - 9 months
SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED COSTS:
Phase I - 3 Months Phase 11 - 9 Months
£11000
Full official Address of Project
Human Psychopharmacology Group,
Department of Psychology,
University of Reading,
Reading, RG6 2AL,
UNITED KINGDOM.
£21,000
Leader Telephone
44-734-667872
or
44-734-318527
FAX 44-734-316604
or
44-734-667872
Signature of Project Leader:
Date
/ 3/, ~l a 3
ovrW.na.a v. ...... _ ..._ _ ,,..,_
Full Time Research Assistant with Honours Degree in Psychology;
Project Leader - Average of four hours per week.
13-12-93 12:18
ESTIMATE COSTS - DETAIL
344 R03
Project Costs Calculated on Annual Basis
Pay Costs
Salary
£12,828
National Insurance 1,037
Superannuation £ 2,362
Total E16,227
Canswiaables
Gift Tokens for
£ 5,000
Completed Forms;
Postage
Capital Equipment
NIL
Travel Expenses
Visits to Sponsors
INVOICED DIRECTLY
Consultancy
Statistical;
£1,630
Ad Hoc Clerical.
overlleads ( 40$ )
Administration;
E9,143
Computer Time;
Heating;
Light;
Space Rental;
Project Leader's
Time.
11C
TOTAL PROJECT COSTS £32,000
C'7
INVOICING QUARTERLY IN ADVANCE
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APPSNDIx A: rUxrcSh vr` JiNYESTIGATION
344 P04.
The aim of our research will hp to relate the person's substance
use to their attempts to cociirul Lheir psychological state (i.e.
affect managemcnt). The aim will be to analy8a the positive
contribution of pleasure to mood as well as the control of
negative states whlch are produced by the challenges of ovsryday
life.
Evidence from the use of single sub3tanoes suggest that substance
use is a stratAgy hy whi~r.h individuals maintain their biochemical
state and so their psychological state in optimal balance (i.e.
affect management).
Our focus will be on legally used 3ubctances, (alcohol, caffeine,
chocolate, food, tea, tobarr.o, and including over-the-counter
medication), emphasizin_y the uc,muonalities of, and difforenoes
bctween, prooeesco underlying the use of these substances.
There is considerable variability in substanae use across
different situations and so it will not be possible to classity
an Sndividual's coping style in terms of ehe use of a sinyle
substance. Nevertheless, individualc ahould be able to describe
consistencies over time in their probability of using particular
substance use strategies.
krom these responses, it will be possible to define patterns for
single individuals and patterna for different groups. It is
anticipated that A ntrmhar of different patterns will emerge-
some will involve dluuhul use, some will include coffee use, some
will involve candiee and so on. The emphasis of the project will
be against stereotyping users as "devi'ant". On the contrary, it
is believed that the analysis will show that it is the total
abstainer from substance use who is abnormal_
I
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APPENDIX B: BACKGROUND TO PROPOSED INVESTIGATION
344 P06
There is evidence that people use substances such as alcohol,
chocolate, coffee, tea and tobacco to help them in their everyday
life, including coping with thP strpssors of modern society. The
purpose of this proposal is 6c suggest ways of delinoatinQ
patterns of oubstanoc uac and the reasons why specific patterns
may be adopted. Although substance use is a multifectorial
proc:aa's, involving social, psychological and biologioal factors,
our research goal will be to relate sub9tanCA use to everyday
life.
Our few:us will hP on legally used substances, (alcohol, caffeine,
chocolate, food, tea, tobacco, and including over-the-counter
modication), emphasizing both the commonalities of, and
differences between, the processes underlying the use of
substances.
Previous research has mainly been concentrated on alcohol and
cigarettes and thcrc i-- quite a body of empirical evidance
available in those areas. In addition, there is some evidence of
a relation between emotional states and eoting (Bauoom and Aiken,
198'1; Doell and Hawkin9, 1982; Leon and Chamberlain, 1973;
SJCberg and Persson, 1979), which is consistent with the
thoorotioal framework, which will be outlined.
However, there is a lack of evidence on tho use of other
substances. More importantly, therP is no work on the
relationship between the use of different substances in the same
individual, exccpt for aasoci',ationn, such as alcohol, caffeine
use and smoking (a.U. Thnmpson and Warburton, 1993).
SUBSTANCE USE AS A CONTROL MECHANISM
The conceptual framework for control and subatsnoc use ie based
on a centra] assumption. This assumption iA that substances may
be used to control a person's psycholugical state for two
independent reacon3; thcy can reduce negative affect or can
increase positive affect di~rectl'y or indirectly. Although these
dual functions of a substance have been described as paradoxical
(Gilbert,, 1979), there is evidence that subatanca use can
accomplish both functions for an individual.
In order to develop thA thpnratical basis of substance use as a
mechanism for coplng with life ytressors, it is necessary to
consider the structure of psychological well-being. Overall
well-being is determined by independent dimensions of positive
affect and negative affect. This proposition is supported by
reAAwrch In a variety of settings (for a review, see Di'engr,
1984). It is important to note the implication that positive
mood is not simply thc ab3cncc of negative mood, or vice verea.
Instead,, each appears to derive from different types of variables
and occurrences. This proposition is outlined in the following
Diagrsm.
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STATE CONTROL AND SUBSTANCE USE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Neurochemical
State
Situational
demands -I
Low Arousal,
Depression
Agitation,
Anxiety, Anger
Control Response
Substance use to
improve
positive affect
Substance use to
decrease negative
affect
344 P0E
The evidence suggests that substance use may indeed accomplish
both functions: minimizing negative mood and maximizing positive
mood. A considerable body of evidence indicates that cigarette
smoking or alcohol use, for example, serve a direct stress-
reduction function (Abrams, 1983; Leventhal and Cieary, 1980).
In addition, this evidence also indicates that substance use may
serve to increase positive affect through providing physically
pleasurable sensations and achieving feelings of relaxation
(Warburton, Revell and Walters, 1988).
In order to illustrate the role of a substance for both reducing
negative affect and increasing positive affect, evidence on
smoking is considered in detail in the next Section.
MOTIVATIONS FOR SMOKING BEHAVIOUR
One body of evidence derives from~studies of smoking motivation,
where investigators ask smokers about the reason for their
smoking. Remarkable consistency has been found across studies
that have factor-analyzed such reports, these have found two
higher order dimensions of smoking motivation, each comprising
several related motives concerning negative or positive-affect
management (McKennell, 1973; Russell et al, 1974; Stanaway and
Watson, 1980; Warburton, Revell and Thompson, 1991).
One higher order dimension includes sub-scales indicating that
smoking is used to reduce anxiety, tension, nervous irritation,
and stress. The second general dimension is based on sub-scales
indicating that smoking is used for stimulation, in social
situations, or to provide pleasure or taste.
It is important to note that these factor-analytic studies
identify different motives for smoking, not necessarily different
types of smokers. The general failure to find easily separate
subgroups of cigarette smokers suggests that people smoke for
13-12-93 12:20
344 Pfa''1
both reasons, at different times and in different situattons.
Individuals will self-regulate the plasma level of nicotine in
order to produce effect managament effocta that ara consi,tent
with theirr mompntAry nPPr7S.
Corresponding to ctudies of people's stated mntivea for smokinq,
similar findings have been obtained in studies that examine the
siluations in which people wish to smoko (Beet and Biakati8n,
1978; Frith, 1471t Stanaway and Watsnn 1980; wWarburton, Revell
and Thompson, 1991). These surveys show that people not only
want to smoke in stressful and negative situations, but also
whilla they also 1ikP rPlAxing happy and social situations.
In laboratory studins, we have asSesgad the mood effects of
smoking with visual analogue scales (Warburton et a1, 1988).
Puff-by-puff, subjects rcportcd that they became calmer, more
tranquiu, more snciahlP, more friendly, more contented, more
relaxed and hesppier. Non-nicotine cigarettes produced no
improvements, suggesting that the effects were duei to nicotine.
The mood changes were correlated with plasma nicotine so that, as
plasma nicotine incroased throughnut the ciQarette, the mood
changes increased (Warburton, 1989). When a second cigarette was
given 30 minute later, (i.e. no nicotine deprivati'on), the pre-
smoking mood level was below that achieved at the end of the
first cigarette changes, but during smoking, it increased until
it was above the level that was achieved wt the end of thg first
cigarette.
Parallel Studies of performance and smoking or nicotine have
shown that they improve intormation processing oapaoity (For
review sBe Warburton, 1990). The results do not depend on
deprivation from nicotine. They are found in nvn-smokers and so
the effects cannot be attributed to thc reversal of withdrawal.
These findinyy have been fitLe(i tu a Functional Model of nicotine
use (Warburton, 1987; 1988; 1989), which argues that smoking is
used as a resource and that it i's a purposive activity. This
view is ®n extension of the idea that smoking was a ooping
strategy (Warburton, 1980; W'arburton Wasnee, and Revell, 1982;
Wesnes, Warburton, and Revell, 1984; Revell, Warburton, and
Wesnes, 1985).
This approach, can be Lil.et3liikec1 with the Control Model which ves
outlined earlier. Smoking for mood changes can be Direct Action
to deal with a current high anxiety situation or in antieipation
of a futuro otressor, minimizing negative mood. Smoking for
enhanced information processing in work fiituatione is also an
active attempt Lu confront work problems (Direct Action) and so
maximizing positive mood. Smoking for Relaxation and Pleasure-
seeking involves active attempts to provide positive experiences,.
maximizing positive mood. They can be seen as strategies during
tha day at rpst breaks or at the end of the day to cnunteract the
negative induC:ed by already experienced stressors.
_J
n
CA
4A
cc
~ CD
13-12-93 12:21
344! P0B
Thus, smoking is an activity with many important psychological
benefits in everyday life. It is not an irrational behaviour,
but the behaviour is adopted because it enables the user to cope
effectively and so enhance their life, at a personal and inter-
personal level. It can be seen as a psychological resource that
the individual uses smoking to control their psychological state
(Warburton, 1987; Warburton, 1988; Warburton, et al, 1988).
Controllable, predictable effects are more pleasurable than
effects which are produced without control (Warburton, 1990b):.
All aspects of smoking contribute to this feeling that the smoker
has that they are in control of their own life - a feeling that
is very important to the smoker (see Warburton, Revell and
Thompson, 1991).
MOTIVATIONS FOR ALCOHOL USE
A similar dual process is indicated by studies of alcohol use.
Epidemiological research (Neff and Husaini, 1982; Pearlin and
Radabaugh, 1976) has indicated a relationship between stressors
and heavy alcohol use. Studies of reported effects of alcohol
consumption indicate a group of effects similar to that observed
for smoking situations (Christiansen, Goldman and Inn, 1982;
Southwick, Steele, Marlatt and Lindell, 1981; Stone, Lennox and
Neale, 1985).
One major set of factors represents the feeling that alcohol will
reduce tension, provide relaxation and divert a person from
worrying about problems, a dimension that has usually been termed
tension reduction. A more diverse group of factors represents
pleasurable effects of alcohol use, including positive mood
effects and increased enjoyment of social situations, together
with some cognitive effects such as enhanced sense of personal
power and optimism about the future.
In much of this research, the focus has been on "heavy" alcohol
users and not moderate users and so the emphasis has been on the
Withdrawal or Escapist functions of alcohol use, which are seen
as maladaptive. However, moderate alcohol use can be viewed as
an effective coping strategy, which enables a person to cope with
stressful social interactions (Direct Action). Alcohol use for
Relaxation and Pleasure-seeking can be viewed as a Direct Action
coping strategy for unwinding at the end of the day after
everyday problems.
Thus motivation for moderate alcohol use has had almost no
research devoted to it, except for a survey which we conducted
some years ago (Revell, Wesnes, and Warburton, 1984). In the
study, alcohol use was related to a desire to solve problems
without the help of others. It was seen particular as a strategy
for coping with anxiety (negative affect minimization)~.
Q
(L'
13-12-93 12:22
MOTIVATIONS FOR CAFFEINE USE
344 P09
Caffeine users reported feellnrJs of increased alertness and
wakefulness and enhanced abillty to work and oonoontrate
(Goldstein and Kaizcr, 1969; Goldstein, Kaizer and Whitby, 1969;
Zwyghuizen-Doorenbos et al. 1990). These experiences of users
have been confirmed in placebo-controlled laboratory studies.
Caffaine dacreasos reaction time (Lieberman et al. 1987; Clubley
et al. 1979; Kerr, Sherwood and Hiculmarch, 1991) end enhances
information processing (8dttig and Suzzi, 1986; 8llttig et al,
1984; Frawer and Ladpr, 1991; Smith et al, 1990).
In our own recent research, we found improvp.mPnts in information
processing with 75 mg of caffeine, equivalent to an average cup
of coffee. For correct detections in the attontional test, the
overall analysis of variance ehnwad a significant effect of
caffeine and a significant internution between caffeine and time
on the test. For reaction times on the samA test, the
significant results were an enhanCement by caffeine end the
interaction between caffeine and time on the test. For the logic
test, a significant effect of caffQinP nn the number correct was
found, but not on reaction time. oii l.he Mood Scales, there were
stati©tioally significant increaeee on the happiness scA1Aa (i.e.
friendliness, contentedness and happiness) and also the subjects
were calmer and Less tense.
The improvements in infOrmation processiny with these doses is
oonsiotont with the finding3 of Lieberman at al (1987) with
aimilar doses and Anhanc.pmpnt without deprivation of Jarvis
(1993). No mood chanye5 were round by Liebermen et al (1987),
but Swift and Tiplady (1985) found mood improvempnt in young
people with a dose of 200 mg, 50 mg larger than our highest dose.
MOTIVATIONS FOR CHOCOLATE USE
Almost no work has been done on chocolate use, although there has
been some speculation in the popular magazines on its "addiotive"
properties. Our own work suggests that calmness and happiness
increase after three or four pieces of choc:olate.
MOTIVATIONS FOR THE USE OF OVER-THE-COUNTER MEUICATION'
The use of over-the-counter medication was discussed in an early
paper (Warburton, 1980), but the relationship with other
substances has only been examined in a very preliminary faOhion
for nurses euposed to stressors. However, the indications were
that ovESz--the-counter medication (also smoking and alcohol use)
was higher in individualo who ooorod higher on internal control
on the Rotter internal-External Control Scale (Rotter. 1966).
