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, I . Tos.CCO IrrroDsTRr Rxsr.iRcn t7omcrrrzs ConFIDENT7AL REPORT Ift MMQ'fT SUBlECT TO AUG. z 1985 NDN•DlSSEMINATION ORDER IN RlRS AhD DUKE CASES. TnBACCO INDl7STR: RESEARCH C0k= AL..rT'Z2~G y l OGTOBER 18, 1961 Attendance Tinothy V. Ha_rtnett, Chair-n Paul H. Hahn !'. S. Royste.- Williaa S. Cutchins Paul D. Goddard W. T. Reed Jr. Samuel C. Linton gugb n,iiz&*+ H.H.Ra= C. S. Stephano J. B. Hutson PreerAn J. Ddn iels Edvin Jacob John W. Hill Richard W. Dar: ov Carl G. Tbo rson The American Tobacco Cocpany, Inc. Bright Belt Warehouse Association, Inc. Brovn & Willie.3on Tobacco Corporatio:: Burley Stabilization Corporation Larus & Br other Co=any, Inc. Meryland Tobacco Grovers Association Philip bSorris, Inc. R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Cocxny fitephano Brothers, Inc. Tobacco Associates, Inc. Perkins, Danield, kcCo:..ack & Co>>:r.s Davis, Polk, WardveL, Sunder'_and & Kier.d.l Hill and Knovlton, Inc. h w n n w M n w C. C. Little, Scienti'ic Director Robert C. Eockett, Associate Scientific Director W. T. Hoyt, Executive Director 1. }5r. Ha;tnett opened the meeti.ng by explaining that he had provYded each of the aembers vith a review of the TTRC prog;am and progress prior to the meeting. (Attachment #1.) Since this resume was necessarily brief, he offered to elaborate on any of the points as needed. This was not considerea; necessary. 2. The grant avards and renewals made by the Scientific Awisory Board s:nce the last TIRC meeting on Nove:ber 15, 1960, totali:.g S5a0,157•00, were approved. This brir.bs the total grant and reneval avards to a figure of $+,285,209.00 since the inception of the Coaaaittee. C I R 6375 CONFIDENTIAL: MINNESOTA 'TOBACCO LITIGATION C TR HN 0+Cl39'{ 0

• 2 - IRYS DOCU6fERT SUBJECT T0 AUG. 20, 1985 NON•DISSEMINATION ORDER It, c-r., .,•D DUKE Mr. Hartnett presented the resume (Attachment #2) covering receipts, budget and cash expenditures, as estimated through 1961. He pointed o•.::, that a contingent liability of $141,000.00, due to be paid on grants already approved for 1962, was not reflected in the cash expenditures. He also presented the proposed 1962 budget (Attachment #3), which he explained had been sent to the Executive Cocaittee prior to the TIRC meeting. Be invited discussion of the proposed budget, and explaine3 the differences indicated between the 1961 budget and the proposed 1962 budget. The budget was approved for 1962 in the amount of $1,207,200. It was also agreed that contributions by the aannatacturing companies would be made, as in 1961, at the rate of one-quarter cent per thousand tax-paid domestic cigarettes based upon the far=u].a used since the inceYticn of the Co=ittee. Again it was explained, however, that in view of the tect that contributions have lagged behind the amount budgeted, an additionsl levy may be necessary during the year. 4. At the request of the Chaiz^..r_n, the Dcecutive Director gave a brief resume of the International Statistical Institute meeting in Pa.ris. This meeting, at which the statistical aspects of tobacco and health were reviewed and subjected to scrutiny by statisticians, was assisted by a TLRC grant. Dr. Sockett explained the i...possibility of solving the causation of any specific disease by the methods of epideniology alone. As an illustration, he cited the incidence of bronchitis in Fhgland which is inversely related to income, yet nobody vould consider poverty to be a direct cause of bronchitis. The association can only serve as a clue by suggesting that the true causes may be factors somehow reltted to, or af feeted by, ir.coWe. The statistics reported as associatir.g lung cancer and other diseases with smoking are, similarly, unable to show causation and can only serve as clues in the search for the causes by more direct experimental and cllnical methods. Be then revieved some of the experimental approaches to the lung cancer proble= which have shown that smoke inhalation alone or even infusion of concentrated smoke condensates into ani-l lungs do not produce cancers. Even pure carcinogenic hydrocarbons to introdtced into the lungs of healthy animals do not produce cancers. Iung cancers of the prevalent hucsan type have been produced in animals only after previous damage by infections, heat, injury or other means, followed by treatment vith carciaogenic substances. Such work by Kuschr.er, Kotin and collaborators, by Stanton and by others_have now furnished methods by vnich the possible contributions of nutrition, liver damage, chronic irritation, promoting agents, age, sex, hormones, mscus flow, Snterference with ciliary activity, and many other factors can be estir-ated in relation to one another. Only a6ainst such background studies of the complex "veb of causation" can it be determined whether tobacco use actually can make any contributio,n to the total pictu_~e, whether direct, rdirect, lnpcrtar:, uniWporZant, specific, non-specific or othervise. C T R F1-17t; - CUNFIDENTiAL: MINNESOTA "" TOBACCO LITIGAT(ON CTR HN 0039"1

-3- "1985 NON-DISSEMINqTION ~UG 20, 'M-GERS-- ORDER ~ AND UKE CASE,~ Unpublished work by Stanton was cited, which indicates that lungs damaged by injections of plastic part,icles into the bloodstream can be sade cancerous by subsequent injections of cadcer-generating hydrocarbons. Tobacco smoke neutral fraction similarly in3ected into lung-d.amaged aninals has not, so far, produced any cancerous effects. As the "web of causation" is worked out experimentally for lung cancer, it seems likely that practical clues to preventing the disease in husans will develop. These vould appear auch more likely, on present evidence, to involve protection against lung da.sge by disease and by certain general air pollutants than any modification of tobacco or of tobacco use. 6. Dr. Little discussed the philosophy of the Advisory Board program ^ and its outlook. Be described the Board's activities and its alloca- tion of the supplementa..-y funds appropriated by the TIRC for the grant program. Ee outlined the Board's interest in: (1) The effect of mucus on aerosols which a_re taken into the lungs and on the response of the cilia. (2) The tissue culture program, which the Board sponsored, is reaching the stage where it is going through a changE of direction as a result of refine=ent and, while some grants are being ter :inated, others are being accelerated. (3) The bioassay approach has been altered considerably by recent developments due to re-classification of many lung carcinomas from the squamous to the adeno catego:f. (k) Greater emphasis is being placed on the virus program. (5) The psychosomatic aspect of disease is being pursued ^arthe_T in a quest to discover why it is that certain types of people, who may be prone to certain diseases, either smoke or do not smoke and what connection there can be, if any, between them. Dr. Little concluded by emphasizing the need for research dealing with basic mechanisms of disease, without which the complex relationship of environmental factors tends to become confusing and meaningless. Re explained that the Board, in addition to establishing three-year te.ras of office for its members a short while ago, is currently considerina replacements f or present r.e.:bers. The necessity f or this is obvious since the members of the Board have served for the past eight years and, for one reason or another, eventually will have to be replaced. The Board is conscious of having available men of talent and character who can substitute when that ti-e becomes necessary. As a result, various guest scientists are being Snvited to sit ln with the Boa_Md, to provide an opportunity for appraising their ef:ectiveness in contributing to the discussions. CTR E;377 CONFIDENTIAL: MINhESOTA TOBACCO LITIGATION CTR Hc r 003r-y 72 2

4 THIS DOCUMENT SUBJECT TO AUG. 20, 1985 NON-DISSE.MINATION ORDER 1H ROGERS AND DUKE CASES. 7. Mr. Darrw discussed public relations activities. He said that the press clixate has changed to some extent: On balance, nevs media have become more conservative in their treatment of repetitious charges against tobacco. Hovever, mention of tobacco or smoking in scientific papers or at meetings in many instances continues to attract press attention. The major volume of enti-amoking news today, based on analysis of clippings received, stens from stories of local origin such as reports given nt local meetings of Aaerican Cancer Society chapters, presentation of the A.C.S. film strip, "To S.:.oke Or Not To Smoke," at local schools or meetings, or talYs by doctors before public groups on their anti-tobacco opin-4ons. }tr Desrov described the continuing use of the TLRC exhibit which is being presented at a large nuaber of inedical meetings each year. He covered the attitudes of various public health agencies, ar.d described the cor.tinuing efforts of the American Cancer Society to er.lis: support of other public health organizations in its ctmpaign aseiast tobac_c. He told of the re-state=ent of intent in this direction by the Caxce..- Society in its publication, "Cancer Nevs." Ztr. Darrow also discussed the anticipated report of the Royal Col-lege of Ryysiciars vhich has been in preparation for the past couple of yea.-s, asri vhich is expected to be issued shortly. He described genera_1y the °c = that the report is expected to take and discussed possible steps to cou".:e: it. 8. It vas decided to hold a meeting of the Executive Committee in N.ay 1962, and to hold the an.^.si meeting of the :'LRC on October 25, 1962. atts. CTR 6 3''r8 CONF/DEIJTIAL: W1NNESOTA ~ TUBACCU LITIGATION (-+ T~~, F,,,t (,,,. j 00rs 97 3

ToS.cco I%-DLSrxr THIS DOCUMENT SUBJECT TO AUG. 20, REsuRcII Comurrr_s 1985 NON-DISSEMINATION ORDER A7TACHM1;ENT = 1 IN ROGERS AND DUKE CASES. October 5, 1961 KMP.ANDVM T0: Tobacco Industry Research Coc=ittte ?ROH: T. V. Eartnett, Chairaan As the TTtC approaches the conclus:on of its eighth year of existence, it is in order to assay the curremt stature and position of the Committee's grogram and progress, and its course for the future, taking into account its genesis and evolution. To begin, I vould like to easphcsize that the Scienti_*ic Advisory Board, vhich vas enlisted in the sY 1^.g of 1954, retains a!l of its original nerbers. The only resignation vas that of Dr. Julius Comroe, vho vas elec te3 after the Board began ta fur-ct=cr., and vao r esigne: bece::se of a change in affiliation that prevented his devoting the necessary tj~e to serve actively as a Board mesber. Eie continues to be cooperative on problers in h1s area of interest. The relationship betveen the Scienti'ic Advisory Board, the Z'glC staf, f, your c:!.ir--&n an 3 our public relat=ons counsel has been, ar.d continues to be, one of close cooperation ar.3 rutaal• undexstanding of problers. 71--is is aos Y gra Vifying in viev of eS: orts to i..:gn TL?C motives and policy.and of direct atter-pts r..ade by certain antaSonSsts to alienate SAB rsenbers. It is virtually inpossible to esti.ate the contribution of SAB meabers vho are recogni2ea. as lea:ers in the vorld of research and aed•icine. Not only has the SAB developed an outstanding and recognized research progr an, but :ts mea.bers have been cf continuous help in brir.gi::z about a better understanding of the probleas relating to tobacco and health in both the scientific sssd lay com=:ties. T'ae Board has proved a tover of strength without which I doubt that we could have met the variety and intensity of at:.acks that continue arainst tobacco. The position of the SAB troa the begir.ning has been that rts:y more research findings are needed before definitive conclusions can be mz.de regarding the cause or causes for lung cancer, heart disease and other diseases, which have been linked to tobacco use. Although much progress has been rade in the study of these diseases, that original position st:' holds as firn today as when it was first taken. F)irtherrore, it is beir.g accepted sore today by the scientific world gene_^ally than at any previous tiae because many discoveries in the inte.-val have des.onstrated its truth. V J T CONFID:a:77AL: ;r.:;:A.r,OTA ~w,-~f-3 },,.{~„ t 003974 ~ TOBACCO LITIGATIO l,, } #~, ~ S 1 ~{ N

JHIS DOCUMENT SUBJECT TO AUG. 20, 1585 NON •DISSEMINATION ORDER IN-ROGERS AND pUKE CASES, 2 This position has been a strong bulvark for the TTRC in the several phases it has passed through since its inception. For:ation ar.d Oraanization Upon the initiative of Mr. Paul M. Hahn, tvo meetings were held in Dece=ber 1953• At these meetings the conclusion was reached that the tobacco industry should forn the Tobacco Industry Research Coaittee. Qn Jazzuary 4, 1954, an announceaent advert:se-ent con_erni:.g the Co.=^ittee appeared in 448 newspapers circulated throughout the United States. The responses to the advertisement were t&ny t.~ousands of letters, inquiries and suggestions. These wer e received and haad:.e3 for the TIItC by Hill e.nd Knovltor,, Inc., public relations counsel. Folloving this, Tam Hoy~,, was appointed Ececutive Secretary to form a nucleus for the adainistration and necessary further organization of the Co=ittee. By the fourth month the nerbers of the SAB had been invited, and ha.d agreed, to serve as scientific advisors. At its first meeting in June 1954, the Board selected as its chair-..a:, Dr. Clarence Cook Little. The Board subsequently recc=ended Dr. Little as Scientific Di_^ector for the Coz;alttee. These steps led to the develop=ent of a research poLcy s--d prog.eW under which the Board rsde the firat research avards. Not t:.^.til the tenth month after the :o:~tion of the Coa:ttee were the first research grants activated. The fact'is that one year of the less than eight years of the Committee's existence was l.a.-gely devoted to the forr.atlon, oreaalzation and ir.auguration of the research program. One of the resi:lts of this careful, t:oughtf,ill develoi...ent period was to dsspel a reluc:.a.nce on the part of soae investigators and institutions to accept grants from the industry group. Actually, the sound basis established in this formative periofl has proved its worth many times. FSonsion and Experimentation The second phase of the Co-ittee's activities was devoted to expansion of research efforts into untried areas of investigation and to the development of techni4ues that would make the grants-in-aid pro~am meaningful, both in terms of the tobacco question and of the health problems that were involved. It was recognized that research grants do not produce inrediate results. Grants, once rsde, usually must run a span of years before completion and, no matter how careftilly pls.nned, scre do not produce significant results. This was to be expected because much vork was being encouraged in new areas. "Some research can be on very practical ratters but much nus t' be of a basic tr ial-and-err or nature and, consequently, exploratory character. cT R CONFID[;tvTIAL. .,~:;,,vfsSOTA ' TOBACCO LlTIOATION C T R y~ c. , 0 0 ~, r-, 7FE

IHIS DOCUMENT SUBJECT TO AUG. 20, - 3 - W NON•DISSEMINATION ORDER 1!! GERS AND DUKE CASES. During this early period, the Board rade a special effort to avard grants to scientists and institutions, which would not only support important research but would also enhance the scientific stature of the program and encourage understanding and acceptance of the TIitC program. Also, the Advisory Board recognized its opportunity and obligation to bring specific problers to the attention of outstand.ing research scientists as a group, rather than as individuals. One of the aost in;por`•.ant of such efforts vas a Pathalogic- Anatomic Study, designed a^d or;a:ized by the Advisory Bca.-d to pool the knowledge and efforts of pathologists of twelve i=portant hospitals in vs.rious parts of the United States. The project was to study t:icroscopic slides of tissues obtained from lung autopsies for the pu.-pose of building collective knowledge of the subject. This study covered a period .°roa 1955 to 1958. The merits of the r oject were so thoroughly established that, upon its terrlr.ation as a 4'L•iC grant, the pathologists engaged in the project have been held together and are continuing to conduct studies under the support of the U. S. Public Health Service. Although the Pathologic-A^atoaic Study was the largest of the TIitC grants to be continued by funds provided by public health agencies, other work original.Ly spor3 ored by the SAB has also been cor.tinued under other auspices, thus constitutine a tribute to the Board's plan nir.g of in;portant research activities. One notable result of the Pathologic-Anatomic Study was development of the conference tec : niYue for in_tiatinr and encouragiar,, resea_-ch. This techr.ique has been utilized by the Advisory Board in several other a.-eas and has received considerable acclafs- by scientists. Conferences on research proble=j tsve also helped i=..-asurably to broaden the understanding of the TLRC program throughcut the scientific world. The conference tecr.aique has been to invite les.ding research investigators to closed sessions devoted to topics of scientific interest under study or sponsored and financed by the Advisory Board. Active investigators can thus meet and co_-pare their individual work, methods, techniques and results, regardless of whether T'LRC-supported. These meetings are inforaal. No min•ztes are kept, and there is no publicity. For these reasons, participants feel free to discuss ideas and theories and to explore nev approaches to health proble.s. The principal benefit from this type of conference lies in planning resea.rch and in finding the cost capable people to conduct it. At the same time, the guest participaAts'have an opportunity to beco:e acquainted vith the scientific level and objectivity of the Board's program. Conferences have been held on subjects such as bioassay a.nd ca..-cinoger.esis, tissue culture, l::r•g physiology, cardiovascular disease and psycho-physiological factors in smoking. CTR 6~01 COfr'rtD,Lr;T1AL' ~':r:hESOTA TOBACCO LITIGATION CTR_ , , N 0039,76

4 THIS DOCUMENT SUBJECT TO AUC. , 1985 NON-DISSEMINATION ORDER IN RQGERS AND = CASFS. The conferences on bioassay and ca.-cinogenesia helped give perspective to the rel.ative S.mportarce of sY1a painting techniques co-pared vith inhalation techniques in anir.al experiments. They have definitely established that a chemical challenge, to be meaningful, requires consideration of the particular tissue involved. Another result vas to establish more nearly acceptable standards for preparation of smoke and its derivatives for application in•anlral research. Folleving two closed cardiovascular conferences, a grant was aede to the New York Academy of Sciences for a three-day public symposium on the "Cardiovascular Effects of Nicotine and Smoking." An Academy monograph, publiahing the papers ar.d discussions at this sysposium, stands as an authoritative document on this subject. Another program of the Board, vhich has von good vill amor.g medical schools and students is the avardiag of research fellowships for medical students. This vas initiated in 1955 to interest medical students in the value of research. An award of one fellowship of epprox:mately $500 to $600 is offered to each r.eaical school. The schools thesselves select the students to receive the fellovsr.ip and the subject of the investigation. This year, 77 of the 79 medical schools receiving this offer have accepted and desigaated fellows to receive the award. yany fellovship students have von awards for their vor's anrl have published their reports. The Committee has received considerable ccr:.:er.dation froa deans of s.edical schools for this program. One T'LRC g: ant, original'_y mde in 1,054, resulted in the 1961 publication of the book, "Tobacco - Fxpe_ri=ental a.nd Clia:ce.l St•sdies." This 800-page monograph is based on a thorough study of more than 6,000 articles published in some 1,200 ~ou.-rals, each of which was read and analytically abstracted. It required six years to assemble, prepare, write a..d publish. The book has been vell received a.nd reviewed in scientific journals, and has a]seLdy been used by many writers as an authoritative source. The greatest intensity of publicity attacks on tobacco occurred during these early periods of TIFtC develoFment. Some attacks were most difficult to contain and handle. Of necessity, stat acents from the TZIRC had to take into consideration reaction of both the scientific and lay coemvnities. It vas necessary to protect the stature, dignity and reputa- tion of the Advisory Board, the Scientific Director and the research program. This called for close cooperation among the research scientists, the TIRC staff and public relations counsel. It also called for an avareneas of other related proble:s of the industry. Each public statement was carefully prepared and cleared before Issuance by these three groups with special consideration to r.aki:.g sure that all assertior.s could be supported and fully docurented. This was made possible by the ever-growing library facilities of the ZZRC. Today, the resources of scientific literature and references on har.d in our library have es tab:i shed it as a'useful sou: ce of scientif 1 irfor.stion on tobacco and hea+th second to none. ~f R Ej 3 S') .,. CONF(DCN?IAL: MINNESOTA ,,,,_, TOBACCO CT`_ _ _- , ~~ 00,,. 9,.~J' LITIGATIO ~ ~ ~' N

'v n~ J. (J, 1585 NON • DISSEratNATION ORDER /M ERS AND DUKE CASES. - 5 - Liaison betveen research, staff and public relatior.s durin; this period of continuous attack proved able 10 function efficiently under the most difficult circuastaaces. Frequently publicity attacks had to be challenged or ansvered on short notice, often on holidays and veekends v::en many scientific meetings are held. By constantly anticipating and prepar:n; for such attacks, the mutual efforts and guidance of all the above mentior.ed groups were effectively used. While its policy has been to keep out of public controversy, the SAB issued its first official position stateaent, signed by each me=ber of the Board, on 2+ay 1, 1957 following the publicity on the vell-knovn Study Group Report. More recently, the Board has =ade a.n official report to the Coasittee members. This vas publlshed in the 1960 Arnual Report of the Scientific Director, and reiterated its official position on the present state of scienti;ic in.forration. Beginning in 1956, an Annual Report of the Scientific Director has been issued sti a*izing progress and discussirg research activities. Annual reports include abstracts of all work reported by grantees. Pzch abstract is vritten by or cleared with the individual grantee before issuance. In this way, the publlshed or reported findir.gs of TLRC grantees are made available In an orgaaized collection to the scientific comr.u::ty. To date, 207 papers have been published in scientific Journals by TrrtC grantees. The TLRC has bud3eted for research grants a total of $4,650,000.. To date, 172 orig:nal grant avards have been made and 180 reneval grants, a=untir.g to $•'+,285,209• Present and Future Develormezt The third phase of the T?ItC program is bringing about a refinement in existing research activities and an extension of the prograa into research areas that appear to offer most meaning to the tobacco problem. This began early in 1960 when Dr. Little requested additional funds from the Dcecutive Committee of TZRC to assist in the further development of the research program. Since then, the Advisory Board has been underta.king to re-design certain research grants to make thea more effective and to terminate at'the earliest date those projects which, for various reasons, do not hold promise of meaningful results. In this effort, the Board has been placing greater emprssis on four fields of research: YIRUSES Ah'D PREVIOUS hUNG I?~'FECZZONS. Scientific fir.dings indicate that viruses are irplicated in some aniral car.cers and that viral and other damage to lungs, both a.^.imsl and hunan, r.ay be an iaPortant factor in ir.ductio~ of lung cancer. CiR 6383 CONFIDENTIAL: MINNESOTA TOBACCO LITIGATION t'°' TR MN 0039"~.~' 18,

-6- THIS DOCUMENT SUBJECT TO AUG. 20, 1985 NON•DISSEMINATION ORDER tM GERS AND UK CAgE$, BIOASSAY AND TLSSUE CUL2Vrty. This area, while not nev to the TIRC program, is receiving cor.centration of attention because of progress resulting from TIRC resea.rch and because of the planning in closed conferences vhich have discussed these fields. As noted previoualy, the Ldrisory Board pioneered in standardizing cigarette smoke condensates for animal skin painting and simllar experiner.ts, thus eliairating to a large extent the use of smoke material carelessly prepared or prepared under unrealistic cor.ditions. Also, through the Board's efforts, the culture of living tissue, especially human tissue, has been advanced, vith the result that a considerable nuiaber of researchers have been trained in this specific field. Currently, the Board is emphasizing extension of tissue culture work and greater attention to inhalation experiments rather than relying on aniaal skin tests. LllNG YH7SIOIAGY. Recently, pathologists have found that many lung cancers that have been classified as the epide:..oid type, which was presumably more coa.:.on r.z:ong smokers, ray be actually another type of lung cancer -- glandular or adenoca_-cino:a. These types have been claiaed to occur less frequently saang smokers and are not co:.sidered to be the result of inhaled aaterials. The TL'.C is supporting further work on this question so as to distinguish more clearly between cancers that originate in the exposed lung surfaces and those that originate in deeper a_-eas or those that sp:ead to the lur.gs fron elsewhere in the body. These more ca.re_*'u]l classifications are chaag:ng some of the ideas about lung cancer origin. EPIDFYZOIAGY, P.4`.'C'&OIAGICAL Ah'D P-FrYSIOLOGICA.L R=-FARCH. The Board has been exploring, t'Lro:gh conferences and pilot studies, the eacpnnsicn of projects in t:~.is ares for two major reasons: 1. Most or mar.y of the benefits of smoking probably can be learned from studies in this field, ar.d 2. Only in this field can there be testing of the Fossibility that certain types of people may be predisposed to particul.a.- health risks and that these people are also more likely to be heavy smokers than others. One of the positive results from TIRC research had to do vith gastric ulcers. As a result of tvo projects studying human beings, it vas found that the secretions that sti:mllate formation of ulcers are not affected by smoking or nicotine. Nov the Board feels that, as a result of this, it may be that a person who is especially likely to develop a particular disease -- ulcer, -for example -- could be described by a "profile" based on psychological and physiological measurements. If this profile is found to be especially co=on among heavy smokers, it might be possible to show what is now suspected but not proved -- that ulcer-prone persons a.re more likely to smoke heavily than other persons because of their way of respor.dir.g to tension or ar.xiety or because of other inner traits. This f ir.dine :.ight be applied to other ailr.ents. C T R 6384 ,CONPIDENTIAL: MINNESOTA ` TOBACCO LITIGATIO ~ ~ ~; ~,,I •~ ,•,,.,,=p~ y sc. t ~_ ~~`! r,~ 1.~ •-,~~ N